A Short History of Army Aviation

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U.S. Army Aviation
(Original Article Written 12/12/12 by Jim Broumley)

Army Aviation became a separate branch on April 12, 1983, but soldiers had been taking to the air since the days of the observation balloon. Aviation is one of the combat arms branches today, but in the beginning, flying was just a method of observation and scouting. During the American Civil War, both the North and the South used balloons to direct artillery fire and observe enemy dispositions. This marked the beginning of aerial support for ground forces. The United States also used balloons during the Spanish American War and WWI. However, soon after the first powered flight the airplane quickly replaced balloons for all military purposes.

The Wright brothers flew the first heavier-than-air, engine-powered, full-size airplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. Within a few years, the leadership of the Army began to run tests of the new invention to see if it had any military benefits. During one of these tests, Lt. Thomas Selfridge became the first U.S. soldier killed in an airplane crash. He had been flying with Orville Wright on September 17, 1908, when the mishap occurred. The following year, the Army accepted delivery of "U.S. Army Aeroplane No. 1," built to specification by the Wright brothers, on August 2, 1909. The subsequent October 26 saw the designation of the first two Army aviators, Lieutenants Frederic E. Humphreys and Frank P. Lahm, when each completed their first solo flight.

Early Army Aviation, circa 1918.
Photo from Library of Congress
With the approval of Congress, an Aviation Section was created under the U.S. Army Signal Corps on July 18, 1914. The Punitive Expedition to Mexico saw the first tactical usage of Army airplanes when General John J. "Blackjack" Pershing used them for scouting while the expedition chased Pancho Villa's forces in northern Mexico. Nevertheless, the Army only had a few dozen aircraft in the inventory when the First World War began. During WWI, the number of Army aircraft grew to more than 11,000 planes with more than 190,000 aviation personnel in the Army Air Service, created in May 1918.

After WWI, the leadership of the Army Air Service, particularly General William "Billy" Mitchell, argued forcefully for the creation of an independent air force, separate from the ground forces of the Army. That argument was rejected at the time, but it was evident that aviation needed to be considered a combat arm unto itself. Again with the required action of Congress, the Army Air Service was changed to the Army Air Corps on July 1, 1926, with a newly designated "Secretary of War for Air" to manage it. This action put the Air Corps in equal status with the infantry, cavalry, and artillery.

During the 1930s the top leadership of the Army Air Corps was focusing on the potential for air power to be employed as a strategic asset (in other words, bombing major targets rather than supporting ground units). This concerned ground forces commanders, particularly in the artillery branch that benefited from using light observation aircraft for adjustment of indirect fire. The Army experimented with organic light aircraft in artillery units during maneuvers in 1940 and 1941. The tests of these "Grasshoppers," as the light planes were called, were very successful. Their performance was better than the larger Air Corps planes that had been used previously.

In the meantime, the advance of technology marched on. In January 1938 the War Department disbursed $2 million for research into the possibility of developing rotary-wing aircraft. The Army acquired its first real helicopter on November 1, 1941, a Sikorsky YR-4.

On June 6, 1942, the Air Corps was elevated to the Army Air Forces (AAF), which put that component of the Army on the same level as the Army Ground Forces. The Field Artillery branch was allowed to keep "organic army aviation" under its control. This meant that light observation aircraft like the L-4 Grasshopper and the L-5 Sentinel and their personnel were organic to the artillery battalions and brigades that they worked for. The Department of Air Training was established at the Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. This date, June 6, 1942, is recognized as the birth date of Army Aviation.

Organic Army Aviation first participated in combat during Operation Torch in November 1942 in North Africa. While the original function of organic Army Aviation was to adjust artillery, during the course of the war, it expanded. During World War II, L-4 Grasshoppers and a few larger L-5 Sentinels were used to adjust artillery fire, gather intelligence, support naval gunfire, conduct medical evacuations (MEDEVAC), and perform other functions like command and control. The expanding mission and close coordination with ground forces were primarily because the aircraft were available to, and often under the command of, the commander on the ground where the assets of the Army Air Forces were not.

The difference in need, mission, priorities, and philosophy as to the employment of aviation assets caused a great deal of friction between the leaders of the Army Air Forces and Army Ground Forces. It was time to separate the two. The United States Air Force (USAF) became its own branch of service, separate from the United States Army, on September 18, 1947. There continued to be a great deal of friction between the services with suspicion of overlapping areas of responsibility and competition for precious funding. On April 21, 1948, President Eisenhower signed the "Key West Agreement" that provided for the division of assets between the Armed Services. Under the agreement, the Air Force would have control of all strategic air assets as well as most tactical aviation and logistic functions. The Army was allowed to retain aviation assets to be used for reconnaissance and medical evacuation purposes. The Navy could have its own combat air arm to support naval operations, which included combat aircraft to support the Marine Corps. After the adoption of the Key West Agreement, the Army continued to develop its light planes and rotary-wing aircraft to support its ground operations. In 1949 the Army established the Warrant Officer Pilot Program to fly new cargo helicopters it was fielding.

The Korean War saw a leap forward in Army Aviation. On January 3, 1951, the first combat medical evacuation by helicopter was conducted - in Korea by 1LT Willis G. Strawn and 1LT Joseph L. Bowler. The H-13 Sioux rotary wing aircraft had been fielded since 1947 and was used for MEDEVAC and command and control operations. The helicopter proved its worth in the rugged terrain of Korea. This recognition of the capabilities of rotary-wing aircraft increased the demand for machines and pilots. In 1951 the Army began organizing helicopter transport companies and the fielding of H-19 Chickasaw, albeit in limited numbers due to the competition for the aircraft from the Air Force.

Forward-thinking leaders in the Army saw the potential of rotary wing aviation. General James Gavin published an article in April of 1954 titled "Cavalry, and I Don't Mean Horses." In this influential article, Gavin called for the use of helicopters in cavalry operations that would provide the mobility that the Army lacked in Korea due to the terrain. This was an indicator of a doctrinal push that rapidly expanded Army Aviation into the combat arm it is today. On November 1, 1954, the Army Aviation School was moved from Fort Sill to Fort Rucker, Alabama. The United States Army Aviation Center (USAAVNC) was established there in March 1955.

Under this new doctrine of "air cavalry," the Army saw the need to mount weapons on helicopters to serve as a kind of "aerial artillery." The French Army had seen some success mounting rocket launchers and 20-mm cannons on helicopters during the Algerian War of 1954-1962. Based on this example, the Army began running tests on armament systems for rotary-wing aircraft in 1956. Primarily, Colonel Jay D. Vanderpool directed these combat development experiments. Vanderpool also wrote the first doctrinal manuals. This research and development was conducted while the Air Force still theoretically had exclusive responsibility for aerial fire support. Nevertheless, Army commanders felt that the Air Force was not doing enough to prepare to support ground forces and under the Key West Agreement were not allowed to arm their fixed-wing aircraft. Therefore, it would seem that competition between the services actually led to the development of armament systems for Army helicopters.

A UH-1 "Huey" delivers a "mule" to the field in
Vietnam. Photo from NARA.
An armed helicopter company was activated in Okinawa in 1962 and later deployed to Thailand and then Vietnam. In Vietnam, the new helicopter company flew escort for lift helicopters. There were no mission restrictions on the army aircraft enforced by the Department of Defense, thereby giving implied permission to deploy armed rotary wing aircraft. Also in 1962, the Tactical Mobility Requirements Board was formed. Commonly known as "The Howze Board," this group had been established to develop and test the concept of air mobility. After test exercises, war games, and concentrated study and analysis, the Howze Board recommended that the Army commit itself to organic air mobility through the extensive use of helicopters. The 11th Air Assault Division (Test) put the Board's recommendations into testing from 1963 to 1965. Beginning with their deployment to Vietnam in 1965, the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) repeatedly demonstrated the validity of the airmobile concept in combat. On April 6, 1966, the Johnson-McConnell agreement was signed between the Army and the Air Force. The Army gave up its fixed-wing tactical airlift aircraft (primarily the DHC-4 Caribou) in exchange for the Air Force relinquishing its claim to most forms of rotary-wing aircraft.

Vietnam was truly America's "Helicopter War." The United States' involvement in Vietnam began with Army Aviation operating a fleet of reciprocating engine aircraft. In the early days of the development of air mobility, the UH-1 Iroquois, or Huey was introduced, a modern turbine-powered aircraft with both troop carrier and gunship versions developed specifically with deployment to southeast Asia in mind. Before the end of the Vietnam War, more than 5,000 of these truly versatile aircraft were sent overseas. Also during Vietnam, the OH-6 Cayuse (the "Loach") and the OH-58 Kiowa were fielded as scout aircraft, replacing the OH-13. In 1967, the AH-1G Cobra came online to begin replacing the Huey gunships as an attack aircraft. The U.S. Army's heavy lift helicopter in Vietnam (and ever since) was the tandem rotor Boeing CH-47 Chinook, introduced in 1962. The OV-1 Mohawk and U-21 Ute (Beechcraft King Air) were part of the small fixed-wing aircraft inventory flown by the Army.

After United States combat forces left Vietnam, Army Aviation continued to develop and pass major milestones. On June 4, 1974, Fort Rucker graduated the first female Army aviator, 2LT Sally D. Woolfolk (Murphy) from Rotary Wing Flight School. NASA chose Major Robert L. Stewart to be the first Army aviator to become an astronaut in January 1978. The aircraft inventory began to enter the modern era with the delivery of the first UH-60 Blackhawk to Fort Rucker on April 1, 1979. In recognition of the demonstrated increasing importance of aviation in Army doctrine and operations, Aviation became the fifteenth basic branch of the Army on April 12, 1983. Since then, commissioned officer pilots would be branched aviation, fully dedicated to learning its operations and tactics, rather than being temporarily detailed from another branch. The Army began to field the AH-64 Apache in 1984. On May 16, 1990, the 160th Aviation Battalion was reorganized and designated the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne). The unit was assigned to the U.S. Army Special Operations Command and signaled the arrival of dedicated aviation assets to special operations.

Since Vietnam and during operations in Grenada, Panama, and the Persian Gulf Army Aviation has played a major role in combat and support operations. An Army aviator fired the first shot of Operation Desert Storm from an Army helicopter. Within a few minutes, two teams of Apaches destroyed two Iraqi radar stations on January 17, 1991. During the next 100 hours of ground combat, Army aviation dominated night operations. The Army can be justly proud of the performance of its aviation assets and personnel during Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq, and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.

AH-64 Apache attack helicopter. Photo from NARA.
In April 1993, attack pilot positions were opened to female aviators. Another milestone was reached when Lieutenant Colonel Nancy J. Currie (formerly Nancy Sherlock), the first female Army aviator to become an astronaut, made her first space flight on June 23, 1993. By 1998 the AH-64D Longbow was arriving at Fort Hood, Texas. In December 2006 the Army accepted its first UH-72A Lakota, a twin-engine light utility helicopter long overdue in the inventory.

The mission of Army Aviation is to find, fix, and destroy the enemy through fire and maneuver; and to provide combat, combat support (CS), and combat service support (CSS) in coordinated operations as an integral member of the combined arms team. Army Aviation has the organic flexibility, versatility, and assets to fulfill a variety of maneuver, CS, and CSS roles and functions. These cover the spectrum of combined arms operations. Aviation can accomplish each of these roles during offensive or defensive operations and also for joint, combined, contingency, or special operations. Since its inception over one hundred years ago, Army Aviation has continued to modernize. With the integration of the AH-64D Longbow, MH-47E, MH-60K, and the UH-72A Lakota, Army Aviation stands on the threshold of a new century more mission capable than ever.

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A Summary History of the 23rd Infantry Division (Americal)

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The Americal Division
(Original article written 5/3/2010 by Jim Broumley)

The U.S. Army's 23rd Infantry Division, more commonly known as the Americal Division, was "born in battle" in that the division was formed in the Pacific Theater during World War II. On April 19, 1942, the 164th Infantry Regiment and additional artillery assets arrived on the island of New Caledonia to reinforce the 132nd and 182nd Infantry Regiments already there. This task force was reorganized as an infantry division and given the name "Americal" on May 24, 1942. The name was taken from the phrase "Americans in New Caledonia" and at that time was the only American division without a numerical designation.

The 164th Infantry Regiment of the Americal Division fought on Guadalcanal beginning on October 13, 1942, alongside the 1st Marine Division. This action made the 164th and thus the Americal, the first United States Army unit to conduct an offensive operation against the enemy in either the Pacific or European Theater of Operations. (Seven other U.S. Army divisions began offensive combat operations in late 1942: the 32nd and the 41st Infantry Divisions in New Guinea; the 9th and 3rd Infantry Divisions, and the 2nd Armored Division in North Africa.) Elements of the Americal defended Henderson Field against heavy enemy attacks, 23-25 October, took part in the offensive across the Matanikau River in November, and attacked and took Mount Austen in January 1943. Once organized resistance ended, the Americal was relieved on February 9th.

The Division moved to the Fiji Islands beginning on March 5, 1943. The Americal was given the mission of defending Viti Levu Island in the Fiji group, a vital communications link between the United States and the Pacific theater. The division used the time to train its replacements for upcoming operations. The rest of 1943 was spent operating observation posts, running continuous reconnaissance patrols, and training.

The Americal Division fought on Bougainville from December 25, 1943, to January 12, 1944. They had relieved the 3rd Marine Division and were given the task of holding and extending the right half of a previously established perimeter. The Americal Division conducted an offensive in March of 1944 that drove the Japanese east of the Mavavia River. By the end of April, they had seized numerous strategic hill bases. Training and long-range patrol activity continued until November 30, 1944, when the Division was relieved.

On January 8, 1945, the first units of the Americal Division left Bougainville, heading for the Philippine Islands. Americans had already established strong points in the Philippines in the campaign to recapture the islands. The Americal was now being attached to X Corps on the island of Leyte. Their mission on Leyte and Samar was to take part in cleaning out the remaining Japanese forces on those islands. Additionally, the Division was to invade Biri, Capul, Ticao, and Burias. The Americal was relieved on Leyte on March 13, 1945. The Division then landed on Cebu on March 26th and seized the city and airfield two days later. Divisional combat teams made landings on Bohol, Negros, and Mindanao, where they cleared out pockets of resisting Japanese until June 17th, when ordered to return to Cebu.

Training continued on Cebu for the proposed invasion of Japan. However, the Japanese surrender on August 14, 1945, thankfully made this operation unnecessary. On September 10, 1945, the Americal Division landed in Japan and took part in the occupation of the Yokohama-Kawasaki-Yokosuka area.

The Division returned to the United States on November 21, 1945, and was inactivated on December 12, 1945. The Americal was reactivated on December 1, 1954, and finally given a numerical designation as the 23rd Infantry Division. However, they retained the name "Americal" as part of its official designation. The 23rd Infantry Division served in the Panama Canal Zone until April 10, 1956, when it was again inactivated.

The 23rd Infantry Division, Americal, was reactivated again in 1967 in the jungles of Vietnam. Now they traced their roots to Task Force Oregon which operated in the I Corps area of operations that included Chu Lai, Quang Ngai Province, and Duc Pho. Task Force Oregon originally consisted of the 196th Light Infantry Brigade, the 1st Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division, and the 3rd Brigade of the 25th Infantry Division, which was later redesignated as the 3rd Brigade of the 4th Infantry Division. The task force became operational on April 20, 1967. Their early Operations included Malheur I and Malheur II, Hood River, Benton, and Cook.

Operation Wheeler was launched on September 11th against elements of the 2nd North Vietnamese Army Division in an area northwest of Chu Lai. On September 25, 1967, Task Force Oregon was designated as the Americal Division. The division was created from the 196th, 198th, and 11th Light Infantry Brigades. Operation Wheeler continued until October 4th when the Americal was joined by 3rd Brigade 1st Air Cavalry Division and Operation Wallowa was launched into the northern sector of the Americal's area of operations. Operations Wheeler and Wallowa were combined on November 11th.

The Americal, 23rd Infantry Division, continued to serve with distinction for the remainder of American combat operations in Vietnam. Twelve Americal soldiers were recipients of the Medal of Honor during the Vietnam War. Several subordinate elements of the Americal Division were awarded Presidential Unit Citations and Valorous Unit Citations in addition to multiple awards for valor from the Vietnamese government. Noteworthy persons who wore the Americal patch include General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, General Colin Powell, and former Governor of Pennsylvania and Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge.

Unfortunately, the 23rd Infantry Division, Americal's reputation has been permanently scarred by what is known as the My Lai Massacre. On March 16, 1968, C Company, 1st Battalion 20th Infantry Regiment, one of the companies of the 11th Light Infantry Brigade, with 2nd Lieutenant William Calley as a platoon leader, was responsible for the murder of 347 to 504 unarmed Vietnamese citizens, all of whom were non-combatants. Lt. Calley and his company commander, Captain Ernest Medina, were prosecuted by court martial for the offenses at My Lai. While 26 U.S. soldiers were initially charged with criminal offenses for their actions at My Lai, only Lt. Calley was convicted. He served only three years of an original life sentence, while on house arrest. When the incident became public knowledge in 1969, it prompted widespread outrage around the world. The massacre also increased domestic opposition to the US involvement in the Vietnam War.

The 198th and 11th Infantry Brigades were withdrawn from Vietnam in November 1971. The Americal Division was inactivated at that time. The 196th Light Infantry Brigade was reconstituted as a separate brigade and remained in Vietnam until June 29, 1972. The 196th Infantry Brigade was the last major combat unit to leave Vietnam. Its 3rd Battalion, 21st Infantry Regiment, was the last U.S. maneuver battalion to leave Vietnam, on August 23, 1972.

The shoulder sleeve insignia of the 23rd Infantry Division was originally approved for the Americal on December 20, 1943. The patch's four white stars on a blue field are symbolic of the Southern Cross under which the organization has served. The blue color stands for infantry. Many men have served "Under the Southern Cross" with pride, courage, and professionalism, defeating the enemy in each encounter from New Caledonia to Vietnam.

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A Summary History of the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment

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"Toujours Pret"
(Original Article Written 5/30/08 by Jim Broumley)

The unit that most Cold War-era veterans knew as the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (ACR) has recently fielded the Stryker Armored Vehicle and is now designated as the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment (SCR). The 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment is a military unit within the United States Army that can trace its lineage back to the early part of the 19th century. 2SCR has the distinction of being the longest-continuously serving unit in the United States Army. The mission of the 2nd Cav is, upon receiving orders, to rapidly deploy and execute reconnaissance and security operations anywhere in the world and be prepared to fight upon arrival and win.

The 2nd Regiment of Dragoons was constituted on 23 May 1836 to fight in the Seminole Indian Campaigns in Florida. The Dragoon was basically a mounted infantryman. That type of unit was considered to be the most capable of defeating the agile and elusive Seminole. From these campaigns, the Regiment earned its first Battle Streamer. The Second Dragoons then served on the Texas frontier guarding the western expansion of the nation. The regiment fought in the Mexican-American War, the early frontier Indian Wars, Bleeding Kansas, and the Mormon War in Utah.

When the Civil War began in the spring of 1861, the 2nd Dragoons made the long trek across the United States to join Federal Forces around Washington D.C. Elements of the unit arrived in time to participate in the First Battle of Bull Run. The 2nd Dragoons, like all mounted units, was reorganized and became the 2nd U.S. Cavalry on August 3, 1861. The Second U.S. Cavalry served in almost every major battle and campaign that the Federal Army of the Potomac participated in. The Regiment earned 14 Battle Streamers during the Civil War and three 2nd Cavalry Troopers were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor.

After the Civil War, the 2nd Cavalry returned to the West. Through 1890 the Regiment participated in the Indian Wars. The 2nd Cavalry Regiment was scattered across the frontier, where they were called upon to keep the peace, explore the vast unknown lands of new territory, establish forts and develop road systems and telegraph lines. The 2nd U.S. Regiment of Cavalry added eleven additional Battle Streamers from the Indian Wars to their Colors. Fifteen more Troopers of the 2nd Cavalry were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor during this period.

In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, the 2nd Cavalry deployed to Cuba, joining Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders in the fighting at El Canay, San Juan Hill, Aquadores, and Santiago. The 2nd Cavalry Regiment stayed in Cuba on occupation duty until 1903. From 1903 to 1906 and again from 1910 to 1912, the Regiment served in the Philippine Islands. There they conducted operations against the Moro Natives and the insurrection against the established Philippine government. Upon returning from the Philippines, the 2nd Cavalry was stationed at Fort Bliss, Texas to conduct border security during the turbulent years of the Mexican Revolution.

World War I was another era during which the 2nd Cavalry Regiment distinguished itself. By 1917 the Regiment, based at Forts Ethan Allan, VT, and Fort Myers, VA was training additional cavalry units for the coming war. Based on its reputation and history, General Pershing called on the Regiment to serve in the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) and in 1917 the Regiment deployed to Europe as the only American horse mounted Cavalry unit to fight in WWI. The Regiment served throughout the American sector conducting cavalry operations and was used as an exploitation force in several combat operations, working as Dragoons, dismounting to hold key terrain. Through these actions, the Regiment proved that horse-mounted cavalry units still had value on the modern battlefield. The Second Cavalry remained with the Army of Occupation in Germany at Koblenz until August 1919.

During the Inter-War years, the 2nd Cavalry Regiment was stationed at Fort Riley, Kansas. There the Regiment performed peacetime duties as the Cavalry School Training Regiment from 1919 to 1939. At Fort Riley, the Regiment experimented with the first armored cars, and in 1936, as more money became available for maneuvers, it participated in the first armored and cavalry maneuvers.

When the United States entered World War II on December 7, 1941, the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment was deeply involved in training cavalry troopers in mechanized operations at Fort Riley. Adjustments were made within all of the existing Cavalry Regiments to help create new armored units that were needed to fight in Europe. After the restructuring, in January 1943, the Regiment was re-designated as the 2nd Cavalry Group (Mechanized).

During World War II, the Regiment, under the new designation of "2nd Cavalry Group," landed in France on July 19, 1944, becoming part of General Patton's Third Army. During this period, the Regiment became known as the "Ghosts of Patton's Army" due to their ability to conduct reconnaissance, materializing seemingly at will behind German lines. The Regiment made the deepest penetration of the war, arriving in Czechoslovakia before finally linking up with Soviet forces heading west. The Regiment also conducted a famous raid behind Soviet lines to rescue the famous Lipizzaner Stallions.

At the end of the war, units that held the lineage of the Second Dragoons were re-designated as the 2nd U.S. Constabulary Regiment. Their mission was to first serve as occupation forces, then as surveillance and security along the Iron Curtain of East Germany and Czechoslovakia. The Regiment remained in Germany for the next 47 years. The 2nd Constabulary Regiment was reorganized and re-designated the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment in 1948. The 2nd ACR served along the East German and Czechoslovakian geopolitical borders for the remainder of the Cold War, until 1992. Throughout this period the Dragoons fielded newer weapons, tanks, and equipment while serving on the forward edge of freedom's frontier.

When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, the 2d ACR was a fully trained, combined arms combat unit, equipped with M1A1 Abrams Tanks and M-2 Bradley Cavalry Fighting Vehicles. While the Regiment's peacetime mission had been defense and deterrence along the border, their wartime mission was to be the covering force for the U.S. VII Corps. In November 1990, the 2nd ACR deployed to Saudi Arabia in support of Operation Desert Shield (later Operation Desert Storm) where they would spearhead the VII Corps' attack. On the 26th of February 1991, the Regiment was heavily involved in blocking the Iraqi counterattack into Kuwait by seven of Saddam Hussein's Republican Guard Divisions. At a desolate spot deep in the eastern Iraqi desert, the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment engaged the Tawakalna Division. This engagement became known as the "Battle of 73 Easting." The outcome of this battle was the destruction of the Iraqi armored force which earned the Regiment the Army's Valorous Unit Award. The actions against the Iraqi Divisions have become instructional examples of modern high-intensity armored warfare.

Returning from the Gulf, the Regiment was relocated from Germany to Fort Lewis, Washington after 49 years of continuous overseas service. The Regiment's ground squadrons were converted into a light cavalry unit consisting of Humvees (Scout HMMWV) mounted with TOW launchers, MK-19 grenade launchers, .50 caliber machine guns, and squad automatic weapons (SAW). The 2nd ACR (Light) was then sent to Ft Polk, LA in 1992. The 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (Light) became the "Corps Cavalry" or the eyes and ears of the XVIII Airborne Corps. At Fort Polk, the 4th Squadron (Regimental Aviation Squadron) was added to the new Regiment's organization. The addition of the 4/2 ACR (Air Cav), with their OH-58D Kiowa Warrior scout helicopters and UH-60 helicopters, completed the Regiment's re-organization into a Light Cavalry Regiment.

The Regiment next deployed in support of Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti from 1995 to 1996. In 1997, the 2nd ACR was deployed to Bosnia to serve as part of NATO's SFOR in support of Operation Joint Guard for peacekeeping operations in that country.

After returning from Bosnia, the Regiment returned to Fort Polk, Louisiana. In 2002, elements of the Regiment were deployed to Southwest Asia in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan as part of the Global War On Terrorism. Soon the unit deployed again to the Gulf, this time for Operation Iraqi Freedom. With only 96 hours' notice, the Regiment deployed the Second Squadron and O Troop (Air Cavalry) to protect the V Corps lines of communication during major combat operations against the Iraqi Army. By May of 2003, the entire Regiment was deployed and served in the Baghdad Area of Operations. Upon the Sadr Uprising of April 2004, the Regiment's tour was extended in combat. The 2nd ACR fought urban battles in Sadr City, Diwaniya, Al Kut, Kufa, and An Najaf. The Regiment remained for a total of 16 months and earned the Presidential Unit Citation.

NARA Photo, 6677673, edited.
3/25/2006: Soldiers of Kilo Troop, 3rd Squadron,
2nd ACR offload a Stryker Command Vehicle
at Fort Lewis, Washington.
In March of 2005, the 2nd ACR was moved to Fort Lewis, Washington. In April 2005, the Regiment was re-designated the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and began reorganizing into the Army's newest Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT). The Regiment was returning to its original mission as Dragoons, or mounted infantry.

On June 1, 2006, the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and the 1st Brigade of the 25th Infantry Division conducted a joint re-flagging and casing ceremony. The 2nd CR was re-flagged as the 4th Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division (Stryker). The 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division cased its brigade colors and was re-flagged as the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment (SCR). As of September 15, 2006, the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment has been home-based at Rose Barracks, Vilseck, Germany, near the Regiment's Cold War home of Nuremberg. With a foundation of infantry-based tactics and the mobility of the Stryker vehicle, the Stryker brigade has become more of a hybrid unit, filling the gap between pure light infantry and the mechanized, heavy infantry.

On August 3, 2007, a farewell ceremony was held in Vilseck as the 2nd SCR prepared to deploy to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom once again. They are scheduled for up to a 15-month tour. From the Swamps of Florida to the Deserts of Iraq, the 2nd Dragoons have lived up to their Motto of "Toujours Prêt," meaning "Always Ready," when our Nation calls.

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Five Historic Sites in Seattle

A few months ago we relocated (once again) from the Seattle area to Central Pennsylvania to be close to certain archives (Getting ready for the next project) as well as historic sites from colonial times to the Civil War. In short, we moved for history. But that doesn’t mean that the Puget Sound region doesn’t have its share of historic sites. I’m surprised at how many people I meet say that they want to visit Seattle. So I thought I’d share a few of my favorite historic sites around Western Washington.

The Ballard Locks
Ballard Locks/Carl English Garden

What the locals call the Ballard Locks (for the community it’s located in), is officially named the Hiram Chittenden Locks and is run by the Army Corp of Engineers. The Ballard Locks connect freshwater Lake Union and Lake Washington with saltwater Puget Sound. Opened in 1917, it still operates today providing a water route out of Seattle’s eastside communities to the Pacific Ocean. Stop by the small museum and gift shop, take a ranger-led tour, or just hang out and watch the boats go through the Locks (surprisingly relaxing). The Locks are also the home of the Carl English Botanical Garden with walking paths through thousands of flowers, shrubs, and trees curated by Corps of Engineers gardeners.

Discovery Park/Fort Lawton

If you’d like to walk through a temperate rainforest without leaving the city, take a trip over to Discovery Park. The park is actually on a large hill overlooking the Ballard Locks and used to be the U.S. Army’s Fort Lawton. Lawton was a point of embarkation during WWII and Korea. You get some great views of Puget Sound from different points in the park. There are miles of trails. You can hike down to take an iconic picture of the West Point Lighthouse, see some of the old buildings left over from the army days, and visit the veteran’s cemetery located in the park.

The Denny Regrade, where Seattle
leveled out its steepest hills. seattlepi.com
Museum of History and Industry (MOHAI)

Everyone knows that Seattle is the home of Starbucks, Boeing, and Microsoft. But the city and surrounding Puget Sound have a rich history prior to these industry giants. Western Washington started out as a collection of “resource towns” supporting industries like lumber, mining, fishing, and shipping. Seattle was the gateway to the Yukon Goldrush. Seattle became what it is through an entrepreneurial spirit that even changed the landscape. That is evidenced by major construction projects like the Locks and ship canal, and especially the Denny Regrade. This fascinating history is told through the Museum of History and Industry. The MOHAI (pronounced MO-HI by the locals) is located on the southern tip of Lake Union. Plan on spending the whole day, especially since you’ll want to walk around the Center for Wooden Boats co-located there.

Goldrush Museum/Pioneer Square

In 1897 gold was discovered on the Klondike River in Canada’s Yukon Territory. Just coming off of a deep economic depression, thousands of fortune hunters from the United States, Canada, and all over the world, flocked to this remote valley in the far north. Seattle competed with other cities, namely Portland and San Francisco, to become the place to get your supplies before jumping off into the wilderness. Seattle won. The story is told in the Klondike Gold Rush Museum, located in the Pioneer Square neighborhood and part of the Klondike Gold Rush National Park. The museum is not large but very interesting. It is my favorite historic site in Seattle. Plus walking around the Pioneer Square section of town will complete your day. Some of the buildings date from the period of the Klondike Goldrush. Choose one of the great restaurants for lunch and enjoy the historic architecture.

Museum of Flight

If you are a fan of aerospace then the Museum of Flight, located on Boeing Field in South Seattle, is the place for you. It’s my favorite aviation museum, touted to be the largest, independent, not-for-profit air and space museum in the world. (Okay, I really like the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum too, but that’s across the country in D.C.) Plan for the whole day as there is a lot to see here. As they say, “it’s worth the price of admission.” My favorite is the “Red Barn,” the birthplace of the Boeing Aircraft Company in 1916.

Coast Artillery Museum at Fort Worden
Just five you say?

No! These are just my five favorite major historic attractions in the Seattle area. There is so much more history to see in Puget Sound, especially if you want to drive a little. Check out the National Nordic Museum in Ballard, or the Washington State History Museum in downtown Tacoma. Puget Sound has a deep maritime history. Check out the U.S. Naval Undersea Museum in Keyport or the Puget Sound Navy Museum in Bremerton. And another favorite of mine is Fort Worden State Historical Park in Port Townsend on the Olympic Peninsula. It's the home of a Coast Artillery Museum and you can explore the concrete batteries where they filmed "An Officer and a Gentleman." It’s a long list. Got one to add? Share it in the comments below. 

A Summary History of the 101st Airborne Division

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 "The Screaming Eagles"
(Original article written 5-9-08 by Jim Broumley)

Since 1974 the 101st Airborne Division has been the United States Army's "Air Assault" Division. The Division is capable of lifting, by helicopter, a 4,000-soldier combined arms force up to 150 kilometers behind enemy lines in one lift. Having approximately 281 helicopters, including three battalions of Apache attack helicopters, makes the "Screaming Eagles" the most versatile fighting unit in the Army. It is the world's only air assault division. The 101st consists of three infantry brigades, Division Artillery, Division Support Command, the 101st Aviation Brigade, the 159th Aviation Brigade, the 101st Corps Support Group, and various other separate commands stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.

Although the Screaming Eagles won their fame and reputation during the Second World War, the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) can trace its lineage back to World War I. In the build-up to the Great War, the 101st Division was originally activated on July 23, 1918. Without fanfare, the Division was demobilized in December 1918. In 1921 the 101st Infantry Division was reconstituted as a reserve unit with headquarters in Wisconsin. This is where the distinctive "eagle head patch" was acquired. The eagle's head represented "Old Abe," the famed eagle mascot of the Wisconsin Infantry Regiment during the Civil War. The Division remained in the reserves until needed for World War II. The Screaming Eagles were disbanded as a reserve unit and reactivated in the regular army as the 101st Airborne Division on August 15, 1942.

The United States Army began testing the viability of parachute units in 1940, after seeing the success of British and German paratroop units in the early days of World War Two. The first tests, conducted at Fort Benning, Georgia, were so successful that soon the army was forming Parachute Infantry Regiments (PIR). Once the United States was thrust into the war, the army authorized airborne divisions. The 82nd and 101st would serve in the European Theater and later the 11th Airborne Division would see action in the Pacific.

Originally the 101st Airborne was comprised of the 502nd PIR and two glider infantry regiments (GIR), the 327th and the 401st. Also assigned were three artillery battalions and various support units. Rigorous training began at Fort Benning, Georgia and Fort Bragg, North Carolina. In June of 1943, the Division was joined by the 506th PIR, of "Band of Brothers" fame, who had been training at Camp Toccoa, Georgia at the foot of Currahee Mountain. The Division deployed to England in September 1943.

After eight more months of training in England, the Screaming Eagles were ready. On June 6, 1944, the Pathfinders of the 101st Airborne Division were leading the way into France for Operation Overlord: D-Day. In the fight against the German 6th Parachute Regiment for the town of Carentan, Lieutenant Colonel Robert G. Cole, Commander of the 3rd Bn, 502nd PIR, became the first member of the Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor. The 101st would spend 33 days in combat before returning to England to receive replacements and train for their next operation.

In September of 1944, the 101st Airborne Division made its second combat jump. This time the jump was in Holland for Operation Market Garden. During this battle, Private First Class Joe E. Mann of the 3rd Bn, 502nd PIR became the second member of the Screaming Eagles to be awarded the Medal of Honor. The Division spent 72 days in combat before being moved to France for refit.

On December 16, 1944, the Germans launched a surprise attack with thirteen armored and infantry divisions in the Ardennes region of Belgium. The front of the Americans was in danger of collapse. On December 17th the 101st received orders to move north out of France and defend the town of Bastogne, Belgium. This was the beginning of the Battle of the Bulge.

Bastogne was a hub of highways that moved through the Ardennes, a forested area that forced the German mechanized forces to use these roads. The Germans surrounded the city on December 20th, isolating the 101st and some elements of the 10th Armored Division. On December 22nd the Germans issued a demand for surrender. The acting Commander of the 101st, General McAuliffe, gave his famous reply of "Nuts." The Germans needed to seize the town of Bastogne for the success of their offensive. Although facing five German divisions, the Screaming Eagles held the town until help broke through on December 26th. The Division continued the defense of Bastogne for three more weeks, earning them the moniker of "The Battered Bastards of Bastogne."

The last mission of World War II for the Screaming Eagles was the taking of the German town of Berchtesgaden, Hitler's retreat in Bavaria. From March until August of 1945, the 101st Airborne served as occupation troops and took the surrender of German military units and prominent Nazi officials. In August of 1945, the Division moved to Auxerre, France to train for the invasion of Japan. The operation became unnecessary when Japan surrendered two weeks later. The 101st Airborne Division was deactivated on November 30, 1945, at Auxerre, France.

In the next eleven years, the 101st Airborne was activated and deactivated three times. Finally, in 1956 the Division was reorganized as a five-brigade division and came back to the Regular Army and its permanent home of Fort Campbell, Kentucky. Between 1956 and 1964 the Division was reorganized again and participated in several major exercises as the world transitioned into the nuclear age and the United States entered the Cold War. Most notable during this period was the 101st Airborne's deployment to Little Rock, Arkansas, in September of 1957 to assist in maintaining order during a series of civil disturbances. The unrest was a result of the integration of Central High School in Little Rock. This was a major event in the quest for racial equality and the professionalism of the troops of the 101st Airborne prevented possible tragedy.

The First Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division was deployed to Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam on July 29, 1965. They were the third United States Army unit to arrive in country. The remainder of the Division arrived in Vietnam in December of 1967, just before the Tet Offensive of January 1968. During Tet, the Screaming Eagles were engaged in combat operations as far south as Saigon and as far north as Quang Tri. One platoon of the Second Brigade landed on the roof of the United States Embassy in Saigon which was under attack by the Viet Cong.

During the early days of Vietnam, the Division made its transition from parachutes to helicopters as the method of insertion. In July of 1968, the Division changed its name to the 101st Air Cavalry Division. The next year, on August 29, 1969, the Division changed its name again to the 101st Airborne Division (Air Mobile), making it the Army's second airmobile division.

In late 1971 and early 1972, the Screaming Eagles left Vietnam and returned to Fort Campbell. During almost seven years of action in Vietnam, the 101st Airborne participated in 15 campaigns. Most notable were Hamburger Hill in 1969 and Firebase Ripcord in 1970. The Division served in the northern I Corps area of operations against the NVA infiltration routes through Laos and the A Shau Valley. The Division supported the ARVN Operation Lam Son 719 which involved invading southern Laos in 1971, but only aviation units actually entered Laos. During Vietnam, seventeen Medal of Honor awards were given to members of the Division. The Division suffered 4,011 soldiers Killed in Action during Vietnam, which is twice the number of casualties from World War II. The 101st was the last American Division to leave the combat zone of Vietnam.

In 1974 the Army terminated jump status for the Division and the Screaming Eagles formally became America's Air Assault Division. The Screaming Eagles took on their current designation of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault). In the post-Vietnam years the Division has evolved into the rapid deployment force that it is today participating in major exercises and peace keeping operations throughout the United States, Honduras, Egypt, Rwanda, Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, and elsewhere.

Since the end of the Cold War, the 101st has served proudly in the Persian Gulf War in January of 1991, conducting an air assault deep into enemy territory in the Iraqi desert. The Division sustained no soldiers Killed in Action during the "100-hour war" and captured thousands of enemy prisoners. The 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) was the first conventional unit to deploy in the War on Terror. In 2002 the Division's Third Brigade participated in Operation Anaconda facing an intense period of combat in the rugged terrain of Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. In 2003 the Screaming Eagles, led by Major General David Petraeus invaded Iraq as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The Division has made a second deployment to Iraq in November of 2005 to conduct counterinsurgent operations and to train Iraqi security forces.

General Order Number Five, which gave birth to the 101st Airborne Division in the early days of World War II, begins "The 101st Airborne Division…has no history, but it has a rendezvous with destiny." The Division has certainly lived up to those prophetic words. The 101st is one of the most famous fighting forces in the world. Thousands upon thousands of proud soldiers have worn the distinctive "Screaming Eagle" shoulder patch, which is arguably the most recognizable unit insignia in the United States military.

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A Summary History of the 82nd Airborne Division

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"All American"
(Original article written 6-15-08 by Jim Broumley) 

The 82nd Airborne Division is an elite parachute unit of the U.S. Army whose home base is at Ft Bragg, North Carolina. The Division has the ability to begin combat operations anywhere in the world within eighteen hours of notification. The primary mission of the airborne is airfield and seaport seizure. Once entry is obtained by parachute, helicopter, vehicle, or by foot, the terrain is secured to rapidly receive additional combat forces. Every soldier in the 82nd Airborne Division is jump qualified and almost every piece of combat equipment assigned to the Division can be dropped by parachute onto the battlefield.

The 82nd Division was organized on March 25, 1917, at Camp Gordon, Georgia. Members of the Division came from all over the country so the unit was given the nickname "All American." This is the reason for the distinctive "AA" on the unit's shoulder patch. Less than a year after its formation the Division was deployed to France to fight in World War I. In less than five months of combat, the 82nd participated in three major campaigns. The famous hero of WWI, Alvin York was a member of the 82nd Division. Sergeant York was awarded the Medal of Honor for attacking a German machine gun and killing twenty enemy soldiers and capturing one hundred and thirty-two others. After the war, the 82nd was demobilized in May 1919.

Paratroopers of the 82nd Airborne Division
board aircraft for a training jump in Oujda,
French Morocco. 6/2/1943 NARA 
The Division would gain its reputation in the next war. Recalled for World War II in March of 1942, the Division was re-designated the 82nd Airborne Division the following August. The 82nd was the first airborne division in the United States Army. During WWII the Division conducted parachute assaults into Sicily, Salerno, Normandy, and Holland. At the battle of Anzio in Italy, a German officer gave the paratroopers one of their many nicknames when he referred to them as "those devils in baggy pants."

The 82nd Airborne Division was not sent to the Korean War but rather began its use as America's strategic reserve and rapid deployment force. In January of 1968, during the Tet Offensive, the 3rd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division was alerted and en route to Chu Lai within 24 hours. The 82nd stayed in Vietnam for 22 months of combat. The All-Americans fought in the Hué - Phu Bai area, and then later fought battles in the Mekong Delta, the Iron Triangle, and along the Cambodian border. The 3rd Brigade returned to Fort Bragg in December of 1969.

As the most highly trained light infantry division in the world, the 82nd Airborne has participated in practically every potential combat deployment of the U.S. Army since Vietnam. This includes Grenada in 1983, Honduras in 1988, the invasion of Panama in 1989, Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm in Saudi Arabia and into Iraq in 1990-91, Bosnia in 1995, Kosovo in 1999, Afghanistan in 2002, and the invasion of Iraq in early 2003. As of 2007, elements of the 82nd Airborne Division are on rotation to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.

The 82nd Airborne Division also carries the moniker of "America's Guard of Honor." They are the nation's strategic offensive force, maintaining the highest state of readiness. Generations of veterans have lived up to the Division's motto. They truly went "All the way!"

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Oral Histories and Remembering the Forgotten War

 A reminder to talk to your relatives now.

It's great to get reader feedback. Over the years I have heard from several folks who read The Boldest Plan is Best who told me that their father or grandfather had served with the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion during WWII. Unfortunately, they also shared that their relative passed away without telling them about their experiences.

Way back in 2008, I wrote a post about the National Day of Listening, sponsored by StoryCorps. I shared then about doing an "oral history" session with my own dad about his service with the 187th Airborne RCT in Korea. It wasn't easy to get him to open up about it. He never talked about combat when I was growing up. A familiar story, I know. But I worked at it. I made it kind of a formal thing and recorded our conversations. That seemed to work to a certain extent. Having served myself might have helped. But I encourage you to do whatever it takes to get the veterans talking.

Here's an article I wrote based on those talks I had with my dad a few years before he passed away. It was the first thing I ever wrote and got it printed in the reader submission part of the old History Channel Magazine. I hope you enjoy it.

Remembering the Forgotten War

Corporal Bob Broumley, Kumwha Korea, 1953
Most of us who enjoy history have heard the cliché that the Korean Conflict is known as the "Forgotten War." However, clichés are often based on truth and this instance is certainly a prime example.

Most Americans do not know about the intensity of that conflict, its importance as the first "limited war," or its significance as part of our overall Cold War victory over communism. Although termed a police action, Korea was not a trivial event; from 1950 to 1953, approximately 1.79 million uniformed service members went into that theater of operations; 36,574 died and another 103,284 were wounded. And according to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, we lost more than 173,000 Korean War veterans in 2007.

One of these Korean War veterans is Bob Broumley from Fort Worth, Texas. When the North Koreans crossed the Thirty-eighth Parallel to invade South Korea on June 25, 1950, Bob was enjoying the summer before his senior year at Tech High School. He would not wait to be drafted and joined the Army after high school. He took great pride in the fact that the two-letter identifier on his service number was "RA," which stood for "regular army" vs. "US" for draftees and "NG" for National Guard members.

Practice jump in Japan, 1952
Upon completion of infantry basic training at Fort Ord, California, and airborne school at Fort Benning, Georgia, 19-year-old Pvt. Bob Broumley shipped out to Korea. He, like most of the new soldiers on his troop transport, moved up as replacements in units that had heavy combat losses. Broumley's first assignment was as a rifleman with the 2/279th Infantry Regiment, 45th Infantry Division, which had been mobilized from the Oklahoma National Guard.

The 2/279th Raider Platoon was tasked with gathering intelligence that included raiding the enemy trench for prisoners. Although assigned to a rifle company as a BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle) man, Broumley accompanied the Raiders on one occasion. A section of the enemy trench between bunkers was selected. Automatic weapons fire would isolate that section from the bunkers on either end. An assault team would then go into the trench and kill or capture any enemy soldiers found there. Quick, violent, and dangerous, the operation was over in minutes.

Ceasefire Declared

After two trips to the line and a stint guarding prisoners of war on the infamous Koje-Do Island, Broumley transferred to the 187th Regimental Combat Team (Airborne) in September 1952. The 187 RCT was being refit in Japan as a theater reserve under the command of Brig. Gen. William Westmoreland. Broumley was ready for the challenge.

Sgt Bob Broumley, Fort Bragg, 1954
Through the winter and spring of 1953, the "one-eight-seven" trained hard in Japan. The days were filled with physical training, small-unit exercises, and practice jumps. The unit was always aware that they might be needed again in Korea. 

The stalemated war continued while both sides jockeyed for position in the armistice for which everyone was waiting. As those talks came close to an agreement, the Chinese Communist Forces threw a massive assault against the line, overwhelming South Korean forces. The 187 RCT was rushed to Korea once again to plug the gap, and Broumley (now a corporal) went with them. 

About a month later, on July 27, 1953, the armistice was signed. 

Broumley had enough "points" to rotate home shortly after the ceasefire. He served the remainder of his time at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, with the 82nd Airborne Division. Staff Sgt. Bob Broumley left the service in 1954 and returned to Fort Worth. He got his job back in the grocery store where he worked during high school.

A Summary History of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment

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"The Blackhorse Regiment"
(Original Article Written 5/9/08 by Jim Broumley)

The U.S. Army's 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment (ACR) is arguably the best-trained mechanized military unit in the world. The men and women of the 11th ACR currently have the task of training active and reserve units at their home base of Fort Irwin, California. Their primary mission is to act as the Opposing Force (OPFOR) for training units on rotation to the National Training Center (NTC). Blackhorse troopers also deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2005. The 11th Cavalry, also known by its nickname of "the Black Horse Regiment," has been on the go since its inception. They have credit for twenty regimental campaigns, earning the regiment's motto of "Allons," which means "let's go."

As a result of the Spanish American War in 1898, the regular United States Army inherited the task of occupation and administration of new territories overseas. To handle this mission, Congress increased the size of the active army by five new infantry regiments and five new cavalry regiments. One of these new regiments, the 11th, gathered for initial training at Ft Meyer, Virginia on March 11, 1901.

1902 found the 11th Cavalry taking part in the Philippine-American War, patrolling the island of Luzon. Jungle warfare was new to the Blackhorse troopers who often fought dismounted. The Regiment's first trooper killed in action was Private Clarence L. Gibbs on March 4, 1902. By May of that year, the Regiment had cleared the island of guerrillas and moved into garrisons. Tropical illness, the climate, and the guerrillas had reduced the Regiment's fighting strength to one-third. The 11th Cavalry returned to the United States in March of 1904.

The Blackhorse Regiment was one of America's "go-to" military units in those early years. The 11th Cavalry deployed to Cuba to calm internal strife in that republic from 1906 to 1909. At that time, in the years following the Spanish American War, Cuba was a de facto protectorate of the United States. Immediately upon their return from Cuba, the Blackhorse had a place of honor in President Taft's inauguration parade on March 4, 1909. From their new home base at Ft. Oglethorpe, in Northwest Georgia, they deployed for patrols along the Texas-Mexican border in 1911. In May of 1914, the Regiment kept the peace in mining communities of Colorado after the Ludlow Massacre, part of a violence-scarred coal strike. However, the 11th Cavalry's greatest fame comes from the honor of having made the last mounted cavalry charge in American army history.

On March 9, 1916, Mexican revolutionaries under Francisco "Poncho" Villa crossed the U.S. border and raided the town of Columbus, New Mexico. The President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, ordered then Brigadier General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing to lead a Punitive Expedition into Mexico to find and destroy Villa's forces. The 11th Cavalry was part of General Pershing's expeditionary force. On May 5, 1916, a provisional squadron of the 11th Cavalry under the command of Major Robert L. Howze was in pursuit of a band of Villistas. After an overnight march of 36 miles, they found their prey in the village of Ojo Azules, arriving there thirty minutes after sunrise. Being discovered by Mexican lookouts, Major Howze ordered a charge. The troopers entered the village with pistols firing, driving the revolutionaries out of the village before pursuing them in a running fight that lasted two hours. The enemy broke in confusion and Major Howze reported forty-two of the approximately one hundred and forty Villistas killed. Even more amazing was that not a single Blackhorse trooper was killed or wounded.

The 11th Cavalry withdrew from Mexico on February 5, 1917; just five days after Germany resumed a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare against American shipping. This action would be a major factor in leading the United States into the First World War. However, tensions with Mexico continued. March 1, 1917 saw the publication of an intercepted German memorandum, known as the Zimmerman Telegram, which proposed an alliance between Mexico and Germany. The telegram contained the promise of returning the "lost territory" of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico should the Mexican government assist Germany in the event of war with the United States. At the time, the British Navy had a German merchant fleet trapped in the Gulf of California port of Santa Rosalia. The United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917. Due to the threat of a potential alliance between Mexico and Germany, a detachment of the 11th was stationed at Calexico, California, the nearest border crossing to the trapped German fleet. The rest of the Regiment spent the war years patrolling the Southwest United States to detect and deter incursions by either Mexican or German forces.

By the end of 1919, the Regiment had consolidated at its new post, the Presidio of Monterey California. The 1920s and 30s were considered the "quiet years" for the Blackhorse. Life for the cavalry in Monterey consisted of training and maneuvers, with weekend polo matches. However, these quiet years were peppered with several noteworthy events for the Regiment.

In 1924 twenty-six troopers were killed and more than one hundred were injured fighting the Presidio Oil fire. The Presidio of Monterey was adjacent to the Tidewater-Associated Marine Terminal, an oil storage facility. A lightning strike started the fire, but due to the lack of safety precautions for the day, the fire spread through the whole facility. As storage tanks burned and collapsed, burning oil poured toward Monterey Bay. The bravery of the Blackhorse troopers in fighting this disaster saved countless lives and property by preventing the fire from spreading into the town of Monterey. Today, you will find some streets in Monterey named for the Blackhorse troopers who died fighting the fire.

During these years the 11th Cavalry, being stationed in California, made it into the movies. Troopers from the Blackhorse were in "Troopers Three" in 1929 and "Sergeant Murphy" starring Ronald Reagan in 1937. Reagan was himself an Army Reserve Cavalryman assigned to B Troop, 322nd Cavalry. Ronald Reagan was the last American President who served as a horse-mounted cavalryman and the only President who had the honor to "serve" with the Blackhorse.

During the 1920s and 1930s, armored cars, trucks, and motorcycles were slowly introduced into the 11th Cavalry, but their mainstay transportation on the battlefield was still the horse. With the threat of another overseas war looming, the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall began a program of "toughening up" the army by getting units out of their barracks and into the field. In November of 1940, the 11th Cavalry's field rotation began. The Regiment moved into camps near the California/Mexico border for training with weapons, stream crossing, and maneuvers in the desert and mountainous regions. When the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Regiment was ordered to consolidate at Camp Lockett, under construction near the town of Campo, California near the Mexican border. Two Squadrons based at Camp Seeley near El Centro, California executed what became the last forced march in U.S. horse cavalry history. The units completed a ninety-mile march over rocky, mountainous, and desert terrain in just a day and a half.

During the summer of 1942, the Regiment was reassigned to Fort Benning, Georgia for reorganization. They were inactivated as a horse cavalry unit and reactivated as the 11th Armored Regiment. Units of the 11th Cavalry became the cornerstone of the 11th Cavalry Group, the 11th Tank Battalion in the 10th Armored Division, and the 712th Tank Battalion in the 90th Infantry Division.

The 712th Tank Battalion, which was the former 3rd Squadron, 11th Cavalry, entered combat on D-Day + 23 and fought through France and into Germany. With the 90th Infantry Division, they fought for Hill 122 in July 1944. This hill in France was known as "the most expensive piece of real estate in World War Two." From July 3rd to July 13th, the 90th Division suffered 7,000 casualties. The 712th crossed the Moselle River and then the Saar, before crossing back over the Saar River to enter the Battle of the Bulge. The Battalion broke through the Siegfried Line and penetrated into the heart of Germany all the way to Amberg by the time the war ended. The 712th was inactivated after the war at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey in October of 1945. They would rejoin the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment in October of 1958.

The 11th Tank Battalion was created out of the 1st and 2nd Squadrons. The Battalion entered combat on October 2, 1944, and was soon heavily involved in the Battle of the Bulge. The 11th Tank Battalion made a stand in the Ardennes against two Panzer Battalions over the course of three days. Their defense bought time for relief forces to move up and block any further German advance. After the war, the 11th Tank Battalion was inactivated at Camp Patrick Henry, Virginia on October 13, 1945.

The 11th Cavalry Group (Mechanized) would carry on the Blackhorse name through World War Two. Troop B, 44th Squadron was given the honor of providing security to General Eisenhower's headquarters from November of 1944 through the remainder of the war. The remainder of the Group crossed the channel on November 23, 1944, and soon found themselves in the Battle of the Bulge holding an entire sector normally occupied by a division. After the Bulge, the 11th Cavalry Group acted as the flank screen for the XIII Corps during the push from the Roer to the Rhine. The 11th was in constant enemy contact, and reached the Rhine on March 5, 1945, having inflicted 487 casualties on the enemy while taking only 56 of their own. They resumed their offensive into the heartland of Germany on April 1st. In a classic use of armored cavalry, the 11th pushed ahead of allied forces, liberating more than a thousand American POWs and several thousand slave laborers from prison camps. The 11th Cavalry reached the Elbe River on April 14th then swung north conducting mop-up operations. The 11th Cavalry Group met the Russian Third Corps coming into Germany near Kunrau on May 4, 1945. This final thrust of the war resulted in the 11th Cavalry Group killing or wounding 632 German soldiers and capturing 6,128 prisoners. In 21 days the Blackhorse moved 378 miles with casualties of only 14 killed and 102 wounded.

With the end of the war, once again came the task of occupation and administration. In May of 1946, the 11th Cavalry Group (Mechanized) was re-designated as the 11th Constabulary Regiment. The 11th Tank Battalion, now stateside, was re-activated as the Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 1st Constabulary Regiment. These units were issued horses once again to accomplish the mission of reconnaissance and surveillance of the movements of different factions of the German populace. The concern was the possibility of resuming hostilities by any of these groups. These units have the distinction of conducting the last mounted combat patrols in United States Army history. The units' distinctive patch of a "C" inside a circle won them the nickname of "Circle C Cowboys." On November 30, 1948, both the 1st and 11th Constabulary Regiments were combined and re-designated the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, and then inactivated.

The 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment was reactivated on April 1, 1951, as part of the military buildup for the Korean War. Stationed first at Camp Carson, Colorado, the Regiment was rebuilt from the ground up. In 1954 the Regiment moved to Fort Knox, Kentucky where they were used to train reservists. During the early days of the Cold War, a high turnover of draftees was dealt with by training up entire units and then rotating them overseas. In 1957, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment was deployed to Germany to replace the 6th Armored Cavalry Regiment patrolling the West German/Czechoslovakian border. In May of 1960, a separate Aviation Company was added to the Regiment. Also at this time, in an effort to regain a sense of historical esprit de corps within the armored cavalry regiments, the Army reestablished the nomenclature from battalions and companies to the traditional terms of squadrons and troops. The Regiment left Germany and redeployed to Fort Meade, Maryland in 1964.

The 11th ACR developed a reputation as an almost legendary fighting force during the Vietnam War. The Regiment, first deployed in 1966, won fourteen battle streamers and had three of its troopers win Medals of Honor. It was during Vietnam that the Regiment was granted authorization to wear its distinctive unit patch.

On September 7, 1966, the Blackhorse Regiment made an amphibious landing at Vung Tau, South Vietnam with 3,762 troopers. After establishing the base camp, the Regiment began reconnaissance in force operations directed at suspected concentrations of Viet Cong forces in the provinces around Saigon. Skeptics questioned whether armor could be effective in the jungles of Vietnam. However, the Regiment developed innovative tactics, techniques, and procedures that established a reputation as a relentless fighting unit. "Find the bastards, then pile on" was the trooper's slogan and a way of life.

During the infamous Tet Offensive of January 1968, the Regiment was ordered to move into the Bien Hoa and Long Binh areas to restore security. The Blackhorse made a night move of 80 miles through contested areas in only 14 hours after initial alert notice. During this time the Regiment added the Aero-Rifle-Platoon (ARP) to its Air Cavalry Troop. Sometimes referred to as the "Blues Platoon" for their radio call sign, this airmobile unit was often sent to search and destroy suspected enemy forces in areas accessible only by air. Another Blackhorse innovation in Vietnam was to form a troop that used modified M113 Armored Personnel Carriers that could be airlifted by C130 aircraft. This troop outfitted with the "Armored Cavalry Assault Vehicle" (ACAV) could pull out of combat in the morning and re-engage the enemy at a different location in the country by evening.

On May 1, 1970, the 11th ACR was braced to be the spearhead of the American incursion into Cambodia. The plan of this offensive was to finally destroy the North Vietnamese sanctuaries across the border in an area referred to as the "Fish Hook." The target area was prepared by massive B-52 air strikes. The Blackhorse lead the way for the 1st Cavalry Division, 25th Infantry Division, and several Army of Vietnam (ARVN) units. The Blackhorse penetrated more than 60 miles into Cambodia to capture the town of Snoul. The Cambodian Incursion was the last unrestrained offensive use of U.S. ground forces during the Vietnam War. The capture and destruction of tons of enemy weapons and supplies left the enemy devastated and unable to mount an effective offensive for some time. The result was a smoother transition of responsibility for the war to the South Vietnamese military as the American combat forces continued to withdraw.

The 2nd Squadron was the last element of the Regiment to leave, fighting as separate combat command until the end of March 1972, thus bringing to a close the Blackhorse's five and a half years of service in Vietnam. The Blackhorse went home from the toughest, most agonizing conflict that has ever engaged American soldiers overseas. They lost a total of 768 of their fellow troopers during their time in Vietnam and 5,761 were wounded. Three 11th ACR troopers were awarded the Medal of Honor, two of which were posthumous. The Regiment earned fourteen battle streamers and secured its reputation as one of the army's elite units.

The Regiment once again unfurled its colors in Germany on May 17, 1972. Now they were guarding the famous Fulda Gap. In the event of a conventional war in Europe, the Blackhorse would serve as the covering force for V Corps. In peacetime, their job was surveillance and deterrence along a 385-kilometer section of the East/West German Border. The importance of the "Fulda Gap," passages through the Rhön Mountains, was that it offers any attacker from the east the shortest route across the middle of West Germany and the ability to seize the Rhine River crossings at Mainz and Koblenz. The Blackhorse grew during this period, adding a Combat Support Squadron, the 58th Combat Engineer Company, the 511th Military Intelligence Company, and an aviation squadron designated the 4th Squadron/11th ACR. The Squadrons were dispersed in peacetime in order to patrol their individually assigned sectors of the border. Regimental Headquarters, 1st Squadron, Combat Support Squadron, and the 4th Squadron were all stationed in Fulda. The 2nd Squadron was stationed at Bad Kissingen and the 3rd Squadron was in Bad Hersfeld. Border patrol was serious business with each ground squadron maintaining an observation post (OP) which was home to a platoon-sized quick reaction force. Platoons would rotate to the OPs for tours of up to 30 days at a time. The 4th Squadron would fly an aerial surveillance mission of the entire border sector every 24 hours. Border duty never ended, even with a full calendar of field maneuvers and training. This fast and stressful pace was maintained until the Iron Curtain fell on November 9, 1989. The Blackhorse ended border operations and closed its OPs on March 1, 1990. The Cold War veterans of the Blackhorse have justifiable pride in having played an important role in one of the greatest victories in military history.

While still assigned to West Germany, the Blackhorse deployed an aviation task force to Turkey in April of 1991 for operation Provide Comfort, supporting humanitarian relief to the Kurds. One month later the ground squadrons deployed to Kuwait for Operation Positive Force, to secure Kuwait during its effort to rebuild after the Gulf War. During this deployment, on the morning of July 11, 1991, a defective vehicle heater started a motor pool fire at the Blackhorse Base Camp. As the blaze grew, it began to detonate ammunition stored around the vehicle fleet. This necessitated the evacuation of the entire compound and caused extensive damage. Approximately fifty troopers were injured, but that number would have been much higher had it not been for the disciplined response to the emergency. There were no fatalities. By October of the same year, with their respective missions complete, the Regiment returned to Fulda. As the need for U.S. forces in Europe was decreasing, the Blackhorse Regiment was inactivated in a ceremony on March 15, 1994.

The Regiment was reactivated again on October 26, 1994, at Ft Irwin, California for its current mission as the OPFOR at the National Training Center. The Regiment portrays a determined opposing force that trains U.S. forces in the basic principles of army operations and challenges all battlefield operating systems. At the NTC, brigade and battalion-size task forces are trained during ten rotations a year.

The Regiment is also on a rotation schedule to support Operation Iraqi Freedom. In December of 2004, the 2nd Squadron deployed to Babil Province to conduct support and stability operations with the Mississippi National Guard. The 1st Squadron deployed in January of 2005 to Baghdad and was attached to four different Brigade Combat Teams during their one-year tour. The Regimental Headquarters deployed to Mosul the same month and assumed duties as the division headquarters for Multi-National Force Northwest. The Regiment has returned to Fort Irwin to reorganize as a deployable heavy brigade combat team while continuing to serve in rotational support for the army at large.

The Blackhorse is still considered the best-trained mechanized force in the world. Writer Tom Clancy, in his book Executive Orders, says that the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment is the premier regiment in the U.S. Army. In his fictional story, he used the Blackhorse to go into the Gulf region again to stop an evil dictator. This unit has the reputation of being the standard to which other maneuver units are measured. Veterans who served with the 11th ACR are proud of the Regiment's long history of distinguished service. All over the country, in every walk of life, you'll find bumper stickers, tee shirts, and hats that proclaim for the owner, "I rode with the Blackhorse!"

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