History of U.S. Navy Submarines

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A Brief History of U.S. Navy Submarines

An Ohio-class submarine transits
the Suez Canal, Nov. 5, 2023.
U.S. Navy Photograph: 231105-N-BT677-2022.JPG

The term "submarine," as an adjective, simply means under the sea. But as a noun, a submarine invokes the mental image of a boat that can wreak havoc during wartime through its stealth and power. Although they are large craft that are crewed by over 150 submariners, a submarine is always referred to as a "boat." That's because during their development the name of the craft was shortened from the adjective "submarine boat" to create the noun "submarine." There are 75 boats either commissioned, in reserve, or under construction, making the submarine the most prolific war-fighting craft in the United States Navy.

The idea of a craft that could sneak up on enemy ships from under the water has been around since the time of Alexander the Great (332 B.C.). Leonardo da Vinci had his submarine concept as well (late 1400s). The first submersible vessel that apparently worked, and there are drawings of it, was constructed in 1620 by Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel in the employ of King James I of England. However, the first military submarine built in the United States was during the American Revolution. The first American submarine was appropriately named the Turtle, designed by Yale University student David Bushnell in 1775.

The Turtle was an acorn-shaped submersible propelled by employing a hand-cranked screw. The idea was that the craft would maneuver and attach itself to the underside of a warship, where then the operator could drill a hole in the bottom of the target and attach a bomb. The bomb was on a clock fuse that would give the submersible time to get away. Sergeant Ezra Lee of the Continental Army climbed into the Turtle on the night of September 6, 1776, intent on attacking His Majesty's Ship Eagle then anchored off Boston. Unfortunately, Lee couldn't get the bomb attached to the Eagle, eventually giving up and moving off, pursued by a rowboat full of British sailors. Lee was able to set off his bomb to dissuade his pursuers. There were no casualties on either side and there were no more attempts on record of submarine warfare during the Revolution.

In 1800, American inventor Robert Fulton designed, built, and tested his submarine the Nautilus. Fulton's boat would maneuver under its victim towing a floating mine which would explode using a contact fuse when the mine hit its target. Fulton tested Nautilus in France (the U.S. Navy was in its infancy and not in the market for any new technology) and the preliminary testing proved successful. Unfortunately, neither the French nor the British (at war with each other at the time) were impressed enough to buy Fulton's idea and incorporate submarines into their navies. Fulton returned to the United States in 1804 to work on his steamboat for which he is best remembered.

Although the technology was worked on in other countries, nothing much was done with submarines in the United States until the Civil War. Evidence leads us to believe that up to twenty working submarines were built by both sides during the war. Most were not documented or were lost before making it to combat. The most noteworthy from the period are the Union's USS Alligator and the Confederacy's CSS Hunley. The Alligator was designed by French engineer Brutus de Villeroi and was first launched on May 1, 1862. The Alligator was the first working submarine in the United States Navy and the largest built during the Civil War at 47 feet. It included innovations like compressed and filtered air for its crew of twelve. The boat was propelled by a hand-cranked propeller. The Alligator's weapon system was two limpet mines that could be attached magnetically to the hull of the target ship. Unfortunately, Alligator was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on April 1, 1863, while being towed to Charleston for its first combat deployment.

The Confederate submersible H. L. Hunley was named for the boat's designer and financier. The Hunley was 39.5 feet long and carried a crew of eight. The Confederate submarine also propelled itself with a hand-cranked propeller, but the weapon system was a spar torpedo. The spar torpedo was basically a spear with a bomb attached. The idea was that the Hunley would ram its victim, attaching the mine to the hull of the ship. The Hunley would then disconnect the spar and withdraw, detonating the mine once it was clear. The sub had sunk in testing twice before, so one might imagine that on the night of February 17, 1864, when Hunley launched into Charleston Harbor intent on attacking the Union steam corvette USS Housatonic, observers didn't have their hopes up. However, the Hunley was successful in sinking its intended victim and signaled back to shore a successful mission. Unfortunately, on the way back to base the submarine sank, cause unknown, drowning all eight of her crew.

The Hunley's sinking of the Housatonic marks the first successful attack by a submarine on a surface warship. The location of the innovative submarine remained unknown until 1990. The ship was raised in 2000. Remains of the crew were recovered and laid to rest on April 17, 2004, at Magnolia Cemetery in Charleston, South Carolina. Over ten thousand people attended the ceremony, where the sailors were buried with full military honors.

After the American Civil War, inventors in other countries made great strides in submarine technologies. Some benchmarks included developing new hull designs, creating air pressure systems, powering with steam engines, and the invention of the torpedo tube. However, in the United States, the next major advancement in the development of submarines did not come until 1881. In that year Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland launched a submarine in New York that he designed and named the Fenian Ram. It was named such for his financial backers, the Fenian Brotherhood, an organization bent on Irish independence from Great Britain, who hoped to use Holland's submarine to sink British warships. The Fenian Ram's cutting-edge technology for the first time used horizontal planes and forward motion to "fly" the submarine to its submerged depth. Due to disputes over payments made to Holland, the frustrated Irish group stole the Fenian Ram and another submarine prototype, the Holland III, in 1883 and took the boats to New Haven, Connecticut. Unfortunately for the Fenian Brotherhood, none of their loyal members knew hope to operate the boats and John Holland wasn't helping. The boats gathered rust for thirty years and eventually, the submarines became museum pieces.

USS Holland, the first commissioned sub.
View of starboard bow, on ways, c.1900
National Archives: 512954

That would be the end of John Holland as well, except that his work came to the attention of the United States Navy who tasked Holland for a new boat. The Holland VI was launched on May 17, 1897 at Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey. On April 11, 1900, the Navy bought the Holland VI and renamed it the USS Holland, SS-1, making it the United States Navy's first commissioned submarine. The Holland used an internal combustion engine (later changed from gasoline to diesel) for surface operations and an electric motor for running submerged. The Holland also boasted a new hull shape for easier movement through the water and self-propelled torpedoes fired from tubes that were reloadable from inside the boat.

The USS Holland was so well received that John Holland was able to sell seven of his boat designs to the U.S. Navy and, ironically, a few to the British Navy as well. John Holland's company, the Holland Torpedo Boat Company, would later be renamed the Electric Boat Company. Electric Boat was acquired by General Dynamics in 1952 and is still a principal builder of American submarines today.

The First World War brought rapid advancements to submarine technology, particularly the universal adaption of the diesel engine and radio communications that allowed the boats to be directed from shore. The German's Unterseeboot, or U-boat, dominated during World War I. Within a month of the beginning of WWI in 1914, U-boats were sinking British warships in the North Atlantic. The Germans' adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare against all types of shipping is generally cited as the main reason for the United States' entry into WWI. The threat posed by the U-boat during the war gave birth to anti-submarine warfare (ASW). This included the development of technologies such as sonar and depth charge. As a latecomer to the fight, American submarines did not have a high level of participation. In a navy dominated by a battleship mentality, submarines were used mainly in a defensive role for convoys. However, forward-thinking officers in the United States Navy took note of German accomplishments in undersea warfare.

Between wars submarine technology continued to progress. The Germans were not allowed to have submarines under the Treaty of Versailles. When Adolf Hitler rose to power he made up for lost time and started to bring back the U-boat fleet in direct violation of the treaty. By the time World War II started in 1939, Germany had incorporated many advanced technologies like sonar, radar, and magnetic fuses on their torpedoes. The United States entered the Second World War with the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941. The analysis of the Pearl Harbor attack and the appointment of progressive thinking Chester Nimitz as CINCPAC signaled a new era in naval technology that focused on the aircraft carrier and the submarine. In 1909 Nimitz had commanded the United States' second commissioned submarine, the USS Plunger (SS-2). Admiral Nimitz chose to send a message to the battleship elements of the navy by taking command of the Pacific Fleet on the deck of the submarine USS Grayling (SS-209).

George Bush being rescued by the
submarine USS Finback after being
shot down while on a bombing run
on the Island of Chi Chi Jima. 9/2/1944 
National Archives: 186382

The American submarine fleet at the beginning of the war consisted of 111 boats. During the war a total of 314 boats would see service, 260 of these in the Pacific. These submarines commissioned during the war were from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes. The "silent service" was slow to get started, having at first to deal with the Mark 14 torpedo's faulty depth gauge and unreliable fuse which took eighteen months to correct. However, by the end of WWII, American submarines had sunk 1,560 enemy ships for a total of 5.3 million tons. That represents fifty-five percent of the total tonnage sunk during the war. Warships that fell to American submarines included 8 aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other types. United States submariners denied Japan the raw materials it needed to conduct the war by sinking over half of all enemy merchant shipping. Additionally, U.S. submarines participated in a duty that became known as the "lifeboat league," which was picking up downed Allied pilots. By war's end over 500 aircrew men would owe their lives to the actions of submarines, including future President George H.W. Bush. The cost of this success was high. The United States lost 52 submarines and 3,505 submariners during World War II, the highest percentage of killed in action (KIA) of any branch of service in the American military.

The close of WWII brought about an almost immediate entry into the Cold War between the Western powers, led by the United States, and Russia leading the satellite nations of the Soviet Union (and to some extent Communist China). For the next forty-five years, the Super Powers engaged in an arms race, part of which was played out with a cat-and-mouse game at sea. Submarine and ASW technologies made great strides during the Cold War.

Thanks to the efforts of Captain Hyman G. Rickover, newly appointed as head of the office of Director, Naval Reactors, submarines were the first U.S. vessels to be equipped with nuclear propulsion. The first nuclear-powered submarine was the USS Nautilus (SSN-571), launched on January 17, 1955. Before nuclear power, submarines were limited in their submerged time due to the need for fresh air to run their diesel engines. Now the nuclear sub could stay submerged practically indefinitely. Also, deployments were no longer limited by the need to refuel. The only resupply needed was food. The nuclear submarine could (and would) stay submerged at sea for months at a time. To prove it, in 1957 Nautilus became the first submarine to transit from the Pacific to the Atlantic under the Arctic ice cap.

The first launch of a guided missile from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the USS Tunny (SSG-282). The Tunney had seen long service in WWII and was modified to fire the Regulus missile. She served in this capacity for another 12 years. The first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, or "boomer," designed for the specific mission of nuclear deterrence came into service with the USS George Washington (SSBN-598) in 1959. The five boats in the George Washington class served the country well into the 1980s.

The 1960s saw rapid advances in boomers and the missiles they fired. The George Washington, Ethan Allen, Lafayette, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin classes of Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarines comprised the "41 for Freedom." This term refers to the 41 boats in these five classes that the United States Navy was limited to (along with 656 submarine-launched ballistic missiles) by the 1972 Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I) Treaty. The missiles also evolved through the Polaris, Poseidon, and finally Trident missile classes. The sum of the "41 for Freedom" boats served into the new century until replaced by the Ohio class of boomers, able to fire the Tomahawk cruise missile along with the Trident.

The Ohio class of nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarines began with the launch of the USS Ohio (SSGN-726) launched on April 7, 1979. Originally designated SSBN-726, the Ohio is one of four boats in the class that were converted to a guided missile submarine and given the SSGN designation. These boats are capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles with either conventional or nuclear warheads, plus Harpoon missiles that are fired through their torpedo tubes. The other 14 boats in the class are FBMs, which are each armed with up to 24 Trident II submarine-launched ballistic missiles. These boats, part of the United States nuclear deterrence arsenal, are also known as "Trident" submarines. Those 14 boats carry approximately half of the country's active strategic nuclear warhead capability.

With the advent of ballistic missile boats, submarines evolved into two types, the boomers and the attack submarines. Today's attack boat mission is essentially the same as that of their WWII predecessors: to hunt and destroy enemy ships and submarines. An additional task, added during the Cold War, was to keep up with and provide a radar/sonar screen around an aircraft carrier task force. In the latter half of the 1960s, plans were made for a nuclear-powered boat that was both fast and quiet. The new design became the Los Angeles-class attack submarine. The class started with the launch of the USS Los Angeles (SSN-688) on April 6, 1974. Since then, there have been 62 Los Angeles class fast attack submarines commissioned (19 have already been retired), making the Los Angeles class the most numerous nuclear-powered submarine in the world. Today, all Los Angeles class submarines are capable of firing the Tomahawk cruise missile along with their complement of approximately 25 torpedo tube-launched weapons.

The intended successor to the Los Angeles class was the Seawolf class of nuclear-powered fast attack submarines, ordered near the end of the Cold War in 1989. The Seawolf class boats are larger, faster, and quieter than the Los Angeles class boats, but expensive. The projected cost of the first 12 boats in the class was $33.6 billion. With the budget constraints brought on by the end of the Cold War, the originally planned class of 29 boats was reduced to only 3 in service. They are the USS Seawolf (SSN-21) launched on June 24, 1995, the USS Connecticut (SSN-22) launched on September 1, 1997, and the USS Jimmy Carter (SSN-23) launched on May 13, 2004. All three call Naval Base Kitsap, Washington their home port.

The Virginia class of attack submarines was intended to be a smaller, cheaper version of the Seawolf class ($1.8 billion per boat versus $2.8 billion). The class began with the launch of the USS Virginia (SSN-774) launched on August 16, 2004. Cost saving is accomplished through "off the shelf" electronic packages and new techniques in construction. There are eight boats commissioned and in service out of the proposed 30-boat class.

The mission of United States Navy submarines are peacetime engagement, surveillance and intelligence, special operations, precision strikes, battlegroup operations, and control of the seas. The American navy currently has 71 submarines in service, 18 of these are boomers and 53 are attack boats of different classes. See the table below for the names and homeports of these submarines. (This article was originally written in 2012. Visit this Wikipedia page for an up-to-date list of U.S. Navy Submarines.)

Ohio-class Ballistic Missile Submarines:
USS Ohio SSGN-726	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Michigan SSGN-727	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Florida SSGN-728	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Georgia SSGN-729	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Henry M. Jackson SSBN-730 (formerly the USS Rhode Island)	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Alabama SSBN-731	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Alaska SSBN-732	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Nevada SSBN-733	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Tennessee SSBN-734	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Pennsylvania SSBN-735	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS West Virginia SSBN-736	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Kentucky SSBN-737	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Maryland SSBN-738	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Nebraska SSBN-739	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Rhode Island SSBN-740	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Maine SSBN-741	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Wyoming SSBN-742	Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia
USS Louisiana SSBN-743	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
Los Angeles-class Fast Attack Submarines
USS Dallas SSN-700	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Providence SSN-719	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Pittsburgh SSN-720	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS San Juan SSN-751	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Miami SSN-755	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Alexandria SSN-757	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Annapolis SSN-760	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Springfield SSN-761	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Hartford SSN-768	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Toledo SSN-769	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Norfolk SSN-714	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Newport News SSN-750	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Albany SSN-753	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Scranton SSN-756	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Boise SSN-764	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Montpelier SSN-765	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Helena SSN-725	Naval Submarine Base, Norfolk, Virginia
USS Bremerton SSN-698	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Jacksonville SSN-699	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS La Jolla SSN-701	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Olympia SSN-717	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Chicago SSN-721	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Key West SSN-722	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Louisville SSN-724	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Pasadena SSN-752	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Columbus SSN-762	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Santa Fe SSN-763	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Charlotte SSN-766	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Tucson SSN-770	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Columbia SSN-771	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Greeneville SSN-772	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Cheyenne SSN-773	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Albuquerque SSN-706	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS Topeka SSN-754	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS Asheville SSN-758	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS Jefferson City SSN-759	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS Hampton SSN-767	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS San Francisco SSN-711	Naval Submarine Base, San Diego, California
USS Houston SSN-713	Naval Forces Marianas, Apra Harbor, Guam
USS Buffalo SSN-715	Naval Forces Marianas, Apra Harbor, Guam
USS Oklahoma City SSN-723	Naval Forces Marianas, Apra Harbor, Guam
Seawolf-class Fast Attack Submarines:
USS Seawolf SSN-21	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Connecticut SSN-22	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
USS Jimmy Carter SSN-23	Naval Base Kitsap, Washington (Bangor)
Virginia-class Fast Attack Submarines:
USS Virginia SSN-774	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Texas SSN-775	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS Hawaii SSN-776	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS North Carolina SSN-777	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
USS New Hampshire SSN-778	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS New Mexico SSN-779	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS Missouri SSN-780	Naval Submarine Base, Groton, Connecticut
USS California SSN-781	Naval Submarine Base, New London, Connecticut
USS Mississippi SSN-782	Naval Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

For further reading

Clancy, Tom, Submarine: A Guided Tour Inside A Nuclear Warship, with John Gresham (New York: Berkley, 1993)

Polomar, Norman and K.J. Moore, Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines, 1945-2001 (Washington D.C.: Potomac Books Inc., 2005)

 View the Index of Military Histories 

A Short History of U.S. Navy Aircraft Carriers

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 History of The United States Navy Aircraft Carrier

The USS Enterprise (CVAN-65) cruises

in the Gulf of Tonkin, May 28, 1966.

National Archives

The modern Nimitz-class (CVN-68) aircraft carrier is like a small city with a medium-sized airport on the roof. The combat power carried by the carrier, its air wing, and the other ships in a U.S. aircraft carrier battle group (CVBG) provides the President, in the words of writer Tom Clancy, "presence, influence, and options." The advantage of this power was put more plainly in the words of Senator John C. Stennis, (namesake of the USS John C. Stennis, CVN-74) "there is nothing that compares with it when it comes to deterrence." With nuclear propulsion, jet aircraft that can fly faster than the speed of sound, and weapons that can strike an enemy we can't see with the naked eye, it's hard to believe that the first aircraft took off from a ship less than one hundred years ago.

Early Years

When the Wright brothers made their first powered flight at Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903, the United States, like most other world powers, was focused on a battleship navy. In fact, with the launching of the British warship HMS Dreadnought in 1906, a new arms race began, with the superpowers of the day competing to be the first country to take the next step in armament, armor, and propulsion. Yet, forward-thinking individuals saw the airplane as a potential weapon against these armored behemoths. In 1908, aviation pioneer Glenn Curtis laid out a target in the shape of a battleship and proceeded to simulate bombing it. The United States Navy took notice, and when they heard that Germany was attempting to fly aircraft off the deck of a ship, they wanted to try it too.

On November 4, 1910, Eugene Ely, an exhibition pilot who worked for Glenn Curtiss, took off from a wooden platform built over the main deck of the light cruiser Birmingham (CL-2). Ely's plane, a Curtis Pusher, skipped the water once, but the pilot maintained control and landed safely on shore in Norfolk, Virginia. Two months later, Ely landed on a platform built on the quarterdeck of the armored cruiser Pennsylvania (ACR-4) in San Francisco Bay. He had installed hooks on the undercarriage of his aircraft that grabbed several of the twenty-two transverse cables strung over the platform and held by sandbags on either end. Later that year, Ely was asked how long he planned to keep flying. Ely replied, "Oh, I'll do like the rest of them, keep it up until I'm killed." Two weeks later, at the age of 25, Eugene Ely became the 101st pilot to die in an airplane crash, though not while working for the Navy.

In December 1910, the month prior to Ely's "first carrier landing," Glenn Curtiss offered at his own expense "to instruct an officer of the US Navy in the operation and construction of a Curtiss aeroplane." Lieutenant T.G. Ellyson reported to North Island, San Diego, California on December 23, 1910, for training with Curtiss. Four months later Ellyson "graduated flight school" when Curtiss wrote to the Secretary of the Navy that "Lt. Ellyson is now competent to care for and operate Curtiss aeroplanes." In less than eight years since the first powered flight by the Wright brothers, the Navy had demonstrated that it could have an aircraft take off from, and land on, a ship. Although the U.S. Navy would not establish its flying corps until 1916, it had already begun to see the importance that aviation would play in the future.

World War I developed aviation as a war-fighting branch. The war saw the development of mounted guns and the dropping of bombs on enemy targets. However, the American navy used primarily land-based aircraft and a few seaplanes to provide adjustment for naval gunfire and patrolling for submarines. The British took the lead in developing carrier-borne operations during the First World War. By 1914, they had converted the bulk carrier Ark Royal and the light cruiser Furious into aircraft carriers. The U.S. Navy would take the British example and improve upon it. The USS Jupiter (AC-3), a collier or bulk cargo ship for carrying coal, was converted into the USS Langley (CV-1). The Langley was America's first aircraft carrier, launched on March 20, 1920.

The Langley was converted at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in San Francisco Bay and named for Samuel Pierpont Langley, an American aviation pioneer. Langley could operate with 26 aircraft, which was a space design accomplishment considering the size of her hull. She was nicknamed the "covered wagon" by her crew, and over the next two decades, the Langley trained the first generation of navy carrier pilots. She was converted to a seaplane tender (AV-3) in 1937 and the outbreak of World War II found the Langley in the Philippines. On February 27, 1942, the Langley was caught by a Japanese air attack near Java while ferrying aircraft from Australia. The ship was so badly damaged that later she had to be scuttled by her crew.

While the Langley had always been a test and training ship, what the Navy learned from her immediately went into the next generation of carriers, the Lexington-class. Following WWI, the five remaining major naval powers (Great Britain, the United States, Italy, France, and Japan) entered into the world's first arms limitation treaty, the Washington Naval Treaty, in 1922. One aspect of the treaty was to limit the size of future battleships and heavy cruisers. The United States had already laid the keel on two heavy cruisers, the Lexington and the Saratoga, which now could not be finished due to the limits set by the Washington Naval Treaty. Therefore to take advantage of the work already funded, the projects were converted over to carrier designs. The Lexington (CV-2), called the "Gray Lady" or "Lady Lex," was launched on October 3, 1925, and commissioned on December 14, 1927. The Saratoga (CV-3) was nicknamed "Sister Sara" or "Stripe-Stacked Sara" for the vertical stripe painted on her funnel so pilots could tell her from her sister ship. Saratoga was launched on April 7, 1925, and commissioned on November 16, 1927.

World War II Era

At the time of their launching, the Lexington-class aircraft carriers were the largest and fastest naval ships in the world. They could operate up to ninety aircraft, which was twice the number of any British or Japanese carrier afloat. Lexington and Saratoga made the United States Navy the world leader in naval aviation and during the interwar years trained the generation of officers that would win the great naval battles of WWII. The Lexington was sunk during the Battle of the Coral Sea on May 7, 1942. Saratoga survived the war, including the Battle of Midway, Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima and other campaigns, earning seven battle stars for her WWII service. But at war's end, technology had left Saratoga behind and she was considered a surplus ship. Saratoga was sunk as part of a nuclear test on Bikini Atoll. She is now a destination for recreational divers.

The USS Ranger (CV-4) was the first American aircraft carrier to be built as a carrier from the keel up. The Ranger was the only one its class and smaller than the Lexington-class carriers, but still normally operated with 76 aircraft. Ranger was laid down on September 26, 1931, in Newport News, Virginia, launched on February 25, 1933, and commissioned on June 4, 1934. The Ranger is only one of three American aircraft carriers (along with Saratoga and Enterprise) built before WWII that served and survived the entire war. The USS Ranger spent most of her time in the Atlantic, but trained pilots in night flying in the Pacific at the end of the war. Ranger was sold for scrap and struck from the register on October 19, 1946.

With war on the horizon, the navy took what they had learned from the Lexington-class carriers and the Ranger and developed the Yorktown-class. The USS Yorktown (CV-5) was launched on April 4, 1936, and commissioned on September 30, 1937. The Yorktown was fast at 32 knots cruising, but also carried a complement of 80 aircraft, making it almost as effective a launching platform as the Lexington-class. Two other ships are in the class, the USS Enterprise (CV-6) was commissioned on May 12, 1938, and the USS Hornet (CV-8) was commissioned on October 20, 1941. A scaled-down version of the class, the USS Wasp (CV-7) was built (commissioned in 1939) to use up the allowable tonnage remaining under the Washington Naval Treaty. Due to its size, the Wasp is considered to be a one-ship class. The USS Wasp was sunk during the Guadalcanal Campaign on September 15, 1942. Only one of the three Yorktown-class ships survived the war. The Yorktown was sunk at the Battle of Midway on June 5, 1942. The Hornet was lost at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on October 26, 1942. The USS Enterprise (CV-6), known as the "Big E" or "the Grey Ghost," survived the war, having participated in more major actions (20 battle stars) than any other US ship. Enterprise is probably most famous for launching the sixteen B-25 bombers of the "Doolittle Raid" on Tokyo. CV-6 was scrapped in 1958, but the navy would later honor her name with a new ship.

With the opening salvos of World War II, the United States rushed to lay down the next generation of aircraft carriers. The Essex-class carrier was the most numerous class of carriers with 26 ships being built in both a "short-hull" and "long-hull" version. The long-hull version allowed enough deck space to mount two quadruple 40mm gun mounts. The Essex carried between 90 and 100 aircraft and steamed at 33 knots. The design of the Essex-class allowed for modifications and systems upgrades and hence a few of these carriers lasted until the 1970s. The USS Essex (CV-9) was the fourth ship to bear the name and was commissioned on July 31, 1942. Essex served in the Pacific during WWII and was awarded 13 battle stars and a Presidential Unit Citation. Decommissioned after the war, she was brought back as an attack carrier (CVA-9) during the Korean War era earning 4 battle stars and Navy Unit Commendation. The Essex eventually was made into an antisubmarine aircraft carrier (CVS-9) and was the primary recovery ship for the Apollo 7 space mission. Essex was finally decommissioned in 1969.

The Essex had nine sister ships in the short-hull version. The USS Yorktown (CV-10) was commissioned in 1943, decommissioned in 1970, and is now preserved at the Patriot's Point Naval and Maritime Museum in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina. USS Intrepid (CV-11), also commissioned in 1943, was decommissioned in 1974 and is preserved at the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum in New York. USS Hornet (CV-12) also began service in 1943, was decommissioned in 1970, and now is preserved at the USS Hornet Museum in Alameda, California. The USS Franklin (CV-13) served from 1944 until 1947 and was scrapped in 1966. The USS Lexington (CV-16) was commissioned in 1943 and was not decommissioned until 1991. Lexington is now preserved at the USS Lexington Museum On the Bay in Corpus Christi, Texas. USS Bunker Hill (CV-17) began service in 1943 and was scrapped in 1973. The USS Wasp (CV-18) served from 1943 and was scrapped in 1973. The USS Bennington (CV-20) was commissioned in 1944, decommissioned in 1970, and scrapped in 1994. The USS Bon Homme Richard (CV-31) was the last of the short-hull Essex-class carriers. She was commissioned in 1944, decommissioned in 1971, and scrapped in 1992.

The sixteen long-hull Essex-class carriers began with the commissioning of the USS Ticonderoga (CV-14) in 1944. Ticonderoga was decommissioned in 1973 and scrapped in 1975. USS Randolph (CV-15) served from 1944 until 1969 and was scrapped in 1975. USS Hancock (CV-19) was also commissioned in 1944, served until January 1976, and was scrapped that same year. The USS Boxer (CV-21) began service in 1945 and was converted to an amphibious assault ship in 1959, before being decommissioned in 1969 and scrapped in 1971. The USS Leyte (CV-32) served from 1942 until 1959 and was scrapped in 1970. USS Kearsarge (CV-33) was commissioned in 1946, decommissioned in 1970, and scrapped in 1974. The USS Oriskany (CV-34) served from 1950 until September 1976. Oriskany was scuttled in the Gulf of Mexico in 2006 to create an artificial reef. USS Reprisal (CV-35) was canceled while under construction in 1945. The partially complete hulk was launched in 1946 and used for explosives tests before being scrapped in 1949. USS Antietam (CV-36) served from 1945 until 1963 and was scrapped in 1974. The USS Princeton (CV-37), also commissioned in 1945, served as an amphibious assault ship from 1959 until decommissioned in 1970, and then scrapped in 1971. The USS Shangri-la (CV-38) served from 1944 until 1971 and was scrapped in 1988. The USS Lake Champlain (CV-39) was commissioned in 1945, decommissioned in 1966, and scrapped in 1972. USS Tarawa (CV-40) was commissioned in 1945, decommissioned in 1960, and sold for scrap in 1968. The USS Valley Forge (CV-45) served from 1946 until January 1970 and was scrapped in 1971. USS Philippine Sea (CV-47) was the last Essex-class carrier to see service. Commissioned in 1946, the Philippine Sea was decommissioned in 1958 and scrapped in 1971. The USS Iwo Jima (CV-46) was canceled during construction in 1945 and scrapped in 1946. Six other long-hull Essex-class carriers (CV-50 through CV-55) were canceled before being named.

In August of 1941, with the direct interest of President Roosevelt, the Navy chose to convert nine cruiser hulls that had been already laid into light aircraft carriers. This was a stop-gap measure to fill the time required to build the first Essex-class carriers. The result was the Independence-class of light aircraft carriers. Beginning with the USS Independence (CVL-22), commissioned in January 1943, this class of aircraft carriers typically carried 24 F6F Hellcat fighters and 9 TBM Avenger torpedo planes. The Independence-class carriers were limited capability ships but served well during the war. Eight of the ships participated in the June 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea, supplying 40 percent of the American fighters and 36 percent of the torpedo bombers that saw action during the battle. The Independence-class did not see long service after the war like their larger sisters in the Essex-class. The USS Independence was used as a nuclear test target in 1946 and finally scuttled in January 1951. The USS Princeton (CVL-23) was sunk on October 24, 1944, as a result of damage sustained in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. USS Belleau Wood (CVL-24) was transferred to France to serve that country from 1953 to 1960 and then was returned to the United States to be scrapped. The USS Cowpens (CVL-25) was decommissioned in 1947 and scrapped in 1960. The USS Monterey (CVL-26) was decommissioned in 1956 and scrapped in 1971. USS Langley (CVL-27) began service like her sister ships in 1943 and then served the French Navy from 1951 to 1963 before being returned to the United States to be scrapped in 1964. The USS Cabot (CVL-28) was transferred to Spain to serve from 1967 until 1989. Cabot was returned to the United States to be scrapped in 2002. The USS Bataan (CVL-29) was decommissioned in 1954 and scrapped in 1961. The USS San Jacinto (CVL-30) served this country from 1943 until 1947 and was scrapped in 1972.

During the war, American industry also produced nearly one hundred other purpose carriers, not given the numerical designation of "fleet carriers." These smaller ships, designated "escort carriers" (CVE) fulfilled a variety of other duties such as antisubmarine warfare, close air support, amphibious support, and aircraft transportation. These workhorses left the fleet carriers free to face the Japanese navy in the major "carrier battles" of the war.

Post War

Planned and built during WWII, the Midway-class carriers were commissioned too late to serve in the war. This class of aircraft carrier would see a long life of service to the United States and was the last carrier class of the World War II era that took us through the Cold War era, before the construction of the "Super Carriers." The Midway-class of carrier featured armored deck protection; therefore it was a big ship to support the weight. USS Midway (CVB-41), commissioned on September 11, 1945, was the first navy ship built so large that it could not fit through the Panama Canal. The Midway served several deployments to Vietnam and also participated in Operation Desert Storm. She was decommissioned in 1992 and is preserved at the USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California. Midway's sister ships in the class are USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVB-42) and USS Coral Sea (CVB-43). Franklin D. Roosevelt, known by her crew as "Swanky Franky" or just "Rosie," spent most of her career in the Mediterranean as part of the United States Sixth Fleet. The Roosevelt was decommissioned in 1977 and scrapped the following year. Coral Sea served from 1947 until 1990 and was also deployed to the Vietnam War. The Coral Sea was present for the fall of Saigon and responded to the Mayaguez Incident. She had the nickname "Ageless Warrior" for her long service but unfortunately was scrapped in the year 2000. Three other Midway-class carriers were planned (CVB-44, CVB-56, and CVB-57), but were canceled in the post-WWII drawdown of forces.

Like the Independence-class, two light aircraft carriers came out of this "end of war" period. The Saipan-class of light carriers consisted of two ships: the USS Saipan (CVL-48) and the USS Wright (CVL-49). They were based on light cruiser hulls, but unlike the Independence-class, the Saipan-class were built from the keel up as a carrier. The Saipan and the Wright were commissioned in 1946 and 1947, respectively, and were later converted to command and communications ships in the 1950s. Both ships were scrapped in 1980.

Supercarriers

In the years between World War II and the Korean War, defense dollars were tight. A debate raged among American military leaders on whether the best way to defend the United States was to put the majority of our efforts into long-range bombers that could strike with nuclear weapons anywhere in the world or build naval task forces around a new class of "supercarrier" operating with aircraft capable of carrying tactical nuclear weapons if the need arose. This of course caused a not-always-so-friendly rivalry between the Air Force and the Navy for precious funding. While this debate was raging, both services strove to modernize their branch of service. On July 29, 1948, President Truman authorized the construction of five new ships in a class of supercarriers, based on the Naval Appropriations act of 1949. The keel of the first of these ships, the USS United States (CVA-58) was laid down on April 18, 1949, at Newport News Drydock and Shipbuilding in Virginia. The ship was designed to conduct nuclear war against the Soviet Union. It would carry 18-24 nuclear-capable bombers and 54 fighter escort aircraft. The cost of the United States alone was estimated to be $190 million.

With limited funds and fierce opposition by both the Air Force and Army leadership, Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson canceled the construction of the USS United States on April 23, 1949, just five days after it was started. The funding priority would go to the Air Force and their new project, the B-36 Peacemaker intercontinental bomber. The Navy was livid. Secretary of the Navy John Sullivan immediately resigned. In the months following the decision to cancel the United States, there was a "revolt of the Admirals" where many of the Navy's leadership spoke out publically, many at the cost of their careers. However, the outspoken Admirals did help to bring about congressional hearings into the matters. Subsequent investigations and studies, as well as the protracted, non-nuclear, and limited Korean War, helped to save the United States Navy. In the early 1950s, funds were increased to help modernize existing carriers and plan for future supercarrier projects.

The Forrestal-class was the first supercarriers to see service with the United States Navy. The ships are called "supercarriers" because of the tonnage and the name has been applied to every aircraft carrier since. For example, the USS Forrestal (CV-59) at over 81,000 tons fully loaded is 25% larger than the USS Midway. Although the size and weight of a supercarrier are extraordinary, the Forrestal has a speed of 34 knots and carries a complement of 90 aircraft. Forrestal was commissioned on October 1, 1955, and served until September 1993. Other ships in the class are the USS Saratoga (CV-60), USS Ranger (CV-61), and USS Independence (CV-62). USS Saratoga was active from 1956 until 1994. USS Ranger served from 1957 until July 1993 and USS Independence was in service from 1959 until September 1998. All four Forrestal-class carriers are waiting for disposal.

The Kitty Hawk class of supercarriers brought an incremental improvement over the Forrestal-class. The Kitty Hawk-class has a greater length of a few feet on average, and movement of the elevators to facilitate aircraft movement. Three carriers are in this class. The USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) was commissioned in 1961 and decommissioned in May 2009. Kitty Hawk is being held in reserve status in Bremerton, Washington until 2015. The USS Constellation (CV-64) served from 1961 until 2003 and is awaiting disposal in Bremerton. The USS America (CV-66) was commissioned in 1965 and was decommissioned in 1996. The America was scuttled in 2005 as part of a live-fire test. There was to be a fourth Kitty Hawk-class supercarrier, the USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67). However, originally planned as a nuclear ship, then built with conventional propulsion, there were enough design changes that the USS John F. Kennedy is considered to be the only ship in the Kennedy-class. The Kennedy served from 1968 until 2007 and is now on donation hold in Philadelphia.

The Nuclear Navy

The USS Enterprise (CVN-65) is the United States Navy's first nuclear-powered supercarrier and the only ship in the Enterprise-class. Commissioned on November 25, 1961, and still serving, Enterprise is the oldest active US Navy ship, after the wooden frigate USS Constitution. At the time of her launching, the "Big E" was also the heaviest navy ship at 93,284 tons, and the longest carrier at a length of 1,123 feet. Enterprise has an eight-reactor propulsion design, whereas other nuclear carriers only have two. Enterprise's first deployment in 1962 was to serve as a tracking station for the Project Mercury space capsule that took John Glenn on the first orbit of the earth. Only eight months later the Big E was dispatched to serve as part of the naval blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Enterprise has served multiple deployments to Vietnam and hot spots around the globe since. Enterprise launched air strikes against Al Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan in October 2001, making it the first response to the 9/11 attacks. She has had multiple deployments during the Global War on Terror. Enterprise is scheduled for retirement in 2013, which will make 51 years of continuous service to the country, more than any other U.S. aircraft carrier.

Along with the USS Enterprise, the modern American carrier force is made up of the ten ships in the nuclear-powered Nimitz-class. Beginning with the USS Nimitz (CVN-68), nicknamed the "Old Salt" and commissioned in 1975, these supercarriers are the largest afloat at over 100,000 tons. The Nimitz-class is about thirty feet shorter than the Enterprise but can maintain over 30 knots of speed for unlimited range on two nuclear reactors that drive four propeller shafts. They operate a naval air wing of up to 90 aircraft, mostly F/A-18 Hornets. All ten carriers were built by Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia. As of 2010, the Nimitz's home port is at Everett, Washington. The USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69), the "Mighty Ike," was commissioned in October 1977 and calls NS Norfolk, Virginia home. The USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) was commissioned in March 1982 and is homeported in San Diego, California. The Carl Vinson's callsign is "Gold Eagle," but her crew has a lot of other names for her like "Cell Block 70" and the "Carl Prison." But other nicknames show the sailor's pride, like "America's Favorite Carrier" and the "Chuckie V." On November 11th of 2011 (11-11-11), the Carl Vinson played host to the first NCAA basketball game on an aircraft carrier between the University of North Carolina and Michigan State University.

The USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) is known in navy circles as "TR" but her crew likes to call her the "Big Stick." Commissioned in October 1986, the Theodore Roosevelt is homeported at Newport News, Virginia. The USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) was commissioned on Veteran's Day in 1989. Her home port is Everett, Washington. USS George Washington (CVN-73) was commissioned on July 4, 1992, and is homeported in Yokosuka, Japan. The USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) calls Bremerton, Washington home. Stennis was commissioned in December 1995 and carries the nickname of "Johnny Reb." The USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) has the callsign of "Lone Warrior" and the ship's motto is, of course, "the buck stops here." Truman was commissioned in July 1998 and is home based at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia. The USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76), "the Gipper," calls San Diego home. Commissioned in July 2003, the Reagan is the first ship to be named for a former president who was still living at the time. The USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77) was the tenth and final Nimitz-class supercarrier to be built. The Bush's callsign is "Avenger" in honor of the TBM Avenger aircraft flown by then Lieutenant Bush during WWII. Commissioned in January 2009, USS George H. W. Bush calls Norfolk, Virginia home.

In the Future

The next generation of supercarriers is already being planned and constructed. The Gerald R. Ford class of aircraft carriers will eventually replace the Nimitz class. The Ford class will look similar in appearance, but the Ford-class will incorporate new technologies that will reduce costs and lower crew requirements. The first in the line will be named the USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78), after the 38th President of the United States. The Gerald R. Ford's estimated cost is 13.5 billion dollars. The keel was laid down on November 13, 2009, and the Ford is anticipated to join the U.S. Navy's fleet in 2015, replacing the USS Enterprise (CVN-65). In development is the USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79), scheduled for completion in 2018 and due to replace the USS Nimitz (CVN-68). Also planned is the yet unnamed CVN-80, estimated to be completed in 2021 to replace the Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69).

 View the Index of Unit Histories

For further reading

• Clancy, Tom, Carrier: A Guided Tour of an Aircraft Carrier (New York: Penguin, 1999)
• Kaplan, Philip, Fly Navy: Naval Aviators and Carrier Aviation - A History (London: Metrobooks, 2001)
• Hood, Jean, Carrier: A Century of First-Hand Accounts of Naval Operation in War and Peace (London: Conway, 2010)