A Summary History of the 1st Infantry Division

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"The Big Red One"
(Original Article by Jim Broumley, 5/9/08)

The 1st Infantry Division, nicknamed "The Fighting First" or "The Big Red One" after its shoulder patch, is the United States Army's oldest division. They have provided continuous service to the country since their organization in 1917. The 1st Infantry Division currently consists of four brigade combat teams, a combat aviation brigade, a combat support brigade, a separate cavalry squadron, and various other attached units. They are home-based at Fort Riley, Kansas.

Upon the United States' entry into the First World War, an American Expeditionary Force for deployment to France was quickly formed. Small units that were in service along the Mexican border and at various posts throughout the country were brought together to form the First Expeditionary Division, formally organized on June 8, 1917. Members of the Division paraded through the streets of Paris on July 4th, bolstering the sagging spirits of the French people who had already suffered through almost three years of war. On July 6, 1917, the First Expeditionary Division was designated as the First Infantry Division. With the wearing of the red number one on the left shoulder, the Big Red One was born.

Two days after their designation as the 1st Infantry Division, the Big Red One suffered the first casualties of the war. The "Fighting First" led the way for American troops in World War I. They participated in battles at Cantigny, Soissons, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne Forest. When the Armistice was signed, the Division was at Sedan, the farthest American penetration of the War. The 1st Infantry Division was the first to cross the Rhine into occupied Germany. During the war, the Big Red One suffered 4,411 killed in action, 17,201 wounded in action, and 1,056 soldiers missing or later dying of wounds. The Fighting First Infantry Division can boast five Medal of Honor recipients from World War I.

Unlike many units in the regular army, the 1st Infantry Division was not deactivated during the interwar period. The Big Red One returned to the United States in September of 1919 and took up peacetime status with its headquarters at Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn. In preparation for World War II, the Division began reorganizing and training in November of 1939. After training at Fort Benning, GA, and participation in the Louisiana Maneuvers during May of 1940, the Division was moved to Fort Devens, MA on December 6, 1941. The next day the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and the United States was thrust into World War again.

After further training in the United States and Great Britain, the Big Red One landed on the coast of Algeria near Oran on November 8, 1942. This landing, Operation Torch, was the first American campaign against German forces. The initial lessons of combat were expensive and the Division suffered many casualties during the following campaign in Tunisia.

Now an experienced Division, the Big Red One took part in the campaign to take Sicily, landing at Gela on July 10, 1943. At the end of the Sicilian campaign, the 1st Infantry Division returned to England to prepare for the Normandy invasion. On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the 1st Infantry Division stormed ashore on Omaha Beach. After almost six months of continuous combat, the First Infantry Division had fought across France, entered Germany, and taken the city of Aachen. The Division's well-deserved rest was interrupted by the Battle of the Bulge. The Big Red One raced to the Ardennes on December 17th to help blunt the German offensive.

Before the end of WWII, the Big Red One would breach the Siegfried Line and fight across the Roer to the Rhine River. There the Division crossed the Rhine at the Remagen bridgehead. The 1st Infantry Division would continue to fight across Germany and finish the war in Czechoslovakia. During the Second World War, the Big Red One suffered 3,616 killed in action, 15,208 wounded, and another sixteen members of the Division were awarded the Medal of Honor.

During the Korean War, the Big Red One was assigned to occupation duty in Germany. Soldiers of the 1st Infantry Division secured the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials and later transported seven convicted Nazi war criminals to Spandau Prison in Berlin. In 1955 the Division left Germany and relocated to Fort Riley, Kansas. However, for the next 10 years, the Division continued to send troops to supplement the Berlin Brigade, making the largest deployment of troops during the early days of the Cold War.

The Big Red One was the first divisional unit called to fight in Vietnam. The 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division deployed in July of 1965 and began combat operations within two weeks of their arrival. By the end of 1965, the Division had participated in three major operations: Hump, Bushmaster I, and Bushmaster II. 1966 saw participation in Operations Marauder, Crimp II, Rolling Stone, and Attleboro. The Division took part in the battles of Ap Tau O, Srok Dong, and Minh Thanh Road. In 1967 troops of the 1st ID were taking part in Operations Cedar Falls, Junction City, Manhattan, and Shenandoah II. On October 17, 1967, the Division suffered 58 KIA at the Battle of Ong Thanh.

During the Tet Offensive of early 1968, the Big Red One secured the massive Tan Son Nhut Airbase. In March of '68, the Division took part in Operation Quyet Thang (Resolve to Win). In April the Fighting First participated in the largest operation in the Vietnam conflict, Operation Toan Thang (Certain Victory). On September 13, 1968, the Division Commander, Major General Ware, was killed in action when his command helicopter was shot down by enemy fire. During the first half of 1969, the Division conducted reconnaissance-in-force and ambush operations. The Big Red One was also a part of the multi-divisional Operation Atlas Wedge and participated in the Battles of An Loc. The second half of 1969 saw the Division attempt to turn combat operations over to their South Vietnamese allies. However, the 1st I.D. took part in battles along Highway 13, known as "Thunder Road" until the end of the year.

In January of 1970, the Big Red One was ordered to return to Fort Riley, Kansas. During almost five years of fighting in Vietnam, the 1st Infantry Division lost 6,146 soldiers killed, 16,019 wounded in action, and 20 soldiers taken as prisoners of war. Eleven more members of the Big Red One were awarded the Medal of Honor.

After returning from Vietnam the 1st Infantry Division continued its Cold War mission of defense and deterrence by maintaining one brigade forward deployed in West Germany and the remainder of the Division participating in numerous REFORGER Exercises with our NATO allies. The 1st ID also trained for operations on desert terrain during rotations to the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, California. This training proved crucial when the Division was alerted for deployment to Saudi Arabia on November 8, 1990.

Over a two-month period, the 1st Infantry Division deployed more than 12,000 soldiers and 7,000 pieces of equipment to Saudi Arabia in support of Operation Desert Shield, preparing for the impending Gulf War. On February 24, 1991, the 1st I.D. lead the armored attack for VII Corps into Iraq, starting Operation Desert Storm. The Division was responsible for the initial breach of the Iraqi defenses and consequently rolled over the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division taking 2,600 prisoners of war. During the "100-hour War," the Big Red One assaulted through 260 kilometers of enemy territory, engaged eleven Iraqi divisions, destroyed 550 tanks and 480 armored personnel carriers, and took 11,400 prisoners. By the morning of February 28th, the Division had assumed a blocking position along the "Highway of Death," preventing any enemy retreat. Perhaps due to this position, the Big Red One took nearly twice as many prisoners as any other allied unit during the Gulf War. The Division lost eighteen soldiers during the conflict.

In April of 1996, the 1st Infantry Division moved to a new home station at the German city of Wurzburg. In October of the same year, the Big Red One deployed its 2nd Brigade Combat Team to Bosnia to assume a peacekeeping mission in support of Operation Joint Endeavor. The Division deployed to the Balkans twice in 1999, first as part of Task Force Sabre in Macedonia, then in Kosovo with NATO's Task Force Falcon. This mission lasted until June of 2000, then deployed again in November of 2002.

In January 2003, elements of the 1st Infantry Division deployed to Turkey to prepare the way for the 4th Infantry Division to enter Northern Iraq through Turkey. Approximately 1,800 soldiers from the Big Red One were deployed for this logistical mission. When the Turkish government denied access through their border, this mission ended and the 4th ID entered Iraq through Kuwait.

The Fighting First had a more direct role in the invasion of Iraq by deploying the 1st Battalion, 63rd Armor Regiment to Northern Iraq. Operating in the Sunni Triangle, Task Force 1-63 conducted combat operations while helping to bring stability to the region. When Task Force 1-63 returned home to Germany in February 2004, the rest of the 1st Infantry Division deployed to Northern Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.

In July 2006, the 1st Infantry Division was removed from its home base in Germany and stationed back at Fort Riley, Kansas. The 2nd Brigade was slated to remain based in Schweinfurt, Germany as the only organic heavy mechanized brigade assigned to the United States European Command Area of Responsibility. In the fall of 2006, the 1st Brigade of the Big Red One deployed to Iraq as the Division continues to support Operation Iraqi Freedom.

In the Fall of 2007, the 1st Combat Aviation Brigade (Demon Brigade) deployed to Iraq and was placed under the command of Multinational Division - North located at COB Speicher.

The Big Red One has had many firsts since its inception in 1917. Soldiers of the 1st Infantry Division are the mainstay of the Active United States Army. They have always lived up to the Division's motto of "No Mission Too Difficult, No Sacrifice Too Great - Duty First!"

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A Summary History of the 10th Mountain Division

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"Climb to Glory"
(Original article written 5/9/08 by Jim Broumley)

The 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry) is a non-mechanized, light infantry division that is currently part of the XVIII Airborne Corps. Like the rest of the 18th Corps, the 10th Mountain is designed to be rapidly deployed anywhere in the world. The 10th Mountain Division is currently home based at Fort Drum, in upstate New York.

The specialty of the 10th Mountain Division (LI) is to fight on harsh terrain. This comes from their origins as a unit designed for winter warfare. In November of 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland. Finnish soldiers on skis humiliated the Russians depending on armor in the harsh winter conditions. Forward-thinking Americans watched these developments. They assumed that the United States would be soon drawn into the escalating World War. Charles Minot (Minnie) Dole, the president of the National Ski Patrol, knew that the U.S. Army would need mountain troops in the upcoming war. He lobbied the War Department to train troops in mountain and winter warfare. In September of 1940, Dole made a presentation to the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, and convinced him to act on Dole's proposals for ski units.

On December 8, 1941, the 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion was activated at Fort Lewis, Washington. The 87th was the Army's first mountain unit and would later be expanded to a regiment. The Battalion was nicknamed "Minnie's Ski Troops" in honor of Minnie Dole. The National Ski Patrol took on the role of the recruiter for the 87th Infantry Regiment and later the Division. The 87th trained on Mount Rainier near Fort Lewis and participated in the Kiska Campaign in the Aleutian Islands. After returning home the 87th formed the core of the new 10th Mountain Division.

The Division was activated on July 15, 1943, at Camp Hale, Colorado as the 10th Light Division (Alpine). The maneuver brigades of the Division were contained in the 85th, 86th, and 87th Infantry Regiments. The Division's year of training at the 9,200-foot-high Camp Hale provided the skills necessary to fight and survive in mountain terrain and winter conditions.

On June 22, 1944, the Division moved to Camp Swift, Texas to prepare for the Louisiana maneuvers of 1944. Although those maneuvers were canceled, a period of acclimation to low altitude and hot climate was necessary to prepare for the maneuvers. On November 6, 1944, the Division was re-designated as the 10th Mountain Division and that same month the blue and white "Mountain" tab was added to the Division's shoulder patch.

The 10th Mountain Division started to arrive in Italy in late December 1944. It was one of the last Divisions to enter combat during World War II. However, after a brief training period, the 10th Mountain entered combat on January 8, 1945, near Cutigliano and Orsigna. The initial defensive actions were followed by Operation Encore which kicked off on February 18, 1945. The Division conducted attacks on the Monte Della Torraccia ridge and Monte Belvedere which constituted an approximately five-mile front. Other divisions had attempted to assault this sector three previous times, but none had any lasting success. The 10th Mountain Division cleared the sector in a few days of heavy fighting. The Germans had made seven counterattacks to retake the ground but never succeeded.

In early March the Division fought to a line north of Canolle and moved to within 15 miles of Bologna. The 10th Mountain Division maintained defensive positions for the next three weeks before starting another offensive. The Division captured Mongiorgio on April 20th, and then entered the Po Valley. The 10th Mountain Division crossed the Po River on April 23rd and reached Verona by April 25th. Here the Division met heavy resistance at Torbole and Nago. After an amphibious crossing of Lake Garda, the 10th Mountain Division secured Gargnano and Porto di Tremosine on April 30th as German resistance in Italy ended. The Germans in Italy surrendered on May 2, 1945. After serving some time on security duty and receiving the surrender of various German units, the soldiers of the 10th Mountain Division returned to the United States. The Division was deactivated on November 30, 1945.

Veterans of the 10th Mountain Division were in a large part responsible for the development of skiing into a big-name sport, national pastime, and vacation industry in the years after World War II. Former soldiers from the 10th laid out ski hills, built ski lodges, designed ski lifts, and improved ski equipment. They started ski magazines and opened ski schools. Winter resort towns of Vail, Aspen, Sugarbush, Crystal Mountain, and Whiteface Mountain are but a few of the ski areas built by 10th Mountain Division Veterans.

The Division was reactivated as the 10th Infantry Division to operate as a training division in 1948. It was deactivated again in 1958 with no service in the Korean War. It was not until Reagan's buildup of the military in the 1980s that the 10th Mountain Division was brought back to the active army. On September 11, 1984, the Army announced that Fort Drum, New York would be the new home of the 10th Light Infantry Division. The unit was officially activated on February 13, 1985, with the designation changed to 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry). The 10th was the first division of any kind formed by the Army since 1975 and the first based in the Northeast United States since WWII. The Division was designed to meet a wide range of worldwide infantry-intensive contingency missions. Equipment design was oriented toward reduced size and weight for reasons of both strategic and tactical mobility.

The modern 10th Mountain Division's first deployment came in 1990 when some Division units were deployed to support Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Although the Division didn't deploy to Southwest Asia as a unit, about 1,200 10th Mountain Division soldiers did go. The largest unit to deploy was the 548th Supply and Services Battalion with almost 1,000 soldiers. The 548th supported the 24th Infantry Division (Mech) as it drove into Iraq.

After Hurricane Andrew hit Florida in August of 1992, an estimated 250,000 people were left homeless and damages were in excess of 20 billion dollars. The 10th Mountain Division deployed to assist in the recovery effort. Soldiers of the Division set up relief camps, distributed food, clothing, medical necessities, and building supplies as well as helped to rebuild homes and clear debris.

In 1993, the 10th Mountain Division was deployed to Somalia as part of Operation Restore Hope. When Task Force Ranger and the SAR team were pinned down during a raid in what later became known as the Battle of Mogadishu, 10th Mountain Division units provided infantry for the UN quick reaction force sent to rescue them. The Division had two soldiers KIA during the fighting.

The 10th Mountain Division was also deployed to Haiti and Bosnia in the 1990s. Due to the number of deployments, the 10th Mountain Division gained a reputation as the most deployed division in the army. During the 2000 presidential campaign, the readiness of the 10th Mountain Division became a political issue when then candidate George W. Bush asserted that the division was "not ready for duty". The division's low readiness was attributed to the recent redeployment of division units which had not had the time to refit for future missions.

Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, 10th Mountain units have deployed at an even greater frequency. Division units have played significant roles in Afghanistan and Iraq. Among these has been the rescue of downed Navy SEALs during "Operation Anaconda" in Afghanistan in 2001, and the successful maintenance of security of Western Baghdad during the first democratic Iraqi elections of 2004. They returned from that duty in November of 2004. The 10th Mountain Division's 2nd Brigade Combat Team returned to Iraq in 2007.

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Museum Review: The National Museum of the United States Army

The National Museum of the United States Army (NMUSA) opened in 2020. There is certainly some competition for history museums in this region, like the Gettysburg Battlefield Museum and the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. But I can’t give a higher recommendation than for the NMUSA. I’ve wanted to visit it since it was under construction. It was worth the wait.

First, I liked that the museum was focused solely on the history of the U.S. Army; the unbiased story of the men and women who have served from the first muster of militia in 1636 to our most recent deployments in Iraq and Afghanistan. There are no controversies offered, and no political commentary is displayed. This museum is purely a celebration of the people who answered their country’s call and an educational opportunity for American military history.

When you enter the museum, I recommend that you go to the Army Theater and watch the introductory movie “Of Noble Deeds.” As one of the docents described it, “It will get you in the mode of the museum.” The theater is state-of-the-art. Surround sound and a 360-degree screen. The floor vibrated during battle scenes and I swear there was a blast of cold air blowing down from the ceiling during the segment on the Battle of the Bulge. The movie starts every fifteen minutes, so really, see the movie.

The first floor of the museum holds permanent exhibits that trace the Army’s history. There are seven galleries that each have a different theme. The theme also corresponds to a period of American history. There are plenty of pictures on the museum’s website, but they don’t do these displays justice. It is a total sensory experience of image, light, and sound. There are full-size, real vehicles like a Sherman Tank and a Bradley Fighting Vehicle. The displays were so lifelike (particularly the mannequins) that I was reminded of the movie “Night at the Museum.” Do they come to life at night?

If you are going to read every word on every display, you’re going to need a long day. The Special Exhibits area (traveling or temporary exhibits) is on the second floor. We had to save them for another visit, which we are planning for the near future. There is a lot to see. I won’t go over everything in the museum here. Instead, do a deep dive on the NMUSA website.

The NMUSA is located on Fort Belvoir, Virginia, just south of Washington, D.C., and Alexandria. The museum sits on an open part of the base so you do not have to stop at a gate and sign in or show a picture ID. For driving directions, Google Maps took me right to the parking lot. Their address is 1775 Liberty Drive, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060. Parking is free. Entry into the museum is free, but you are asked to secure a timed ticket on the museum’s website. Probably a good idea during the busy tourist season. When you enter the museum, you will be required to go through a screening similar to an airport. See the NMUSA website for a list of items you are prohibited from bringing into the museum.

I would be remiss if I did not mention that there is a nice cafeteria on the first floor of the museum. But if you want other food options, you’ll have to get in your car. The large, well-stocked, gift shop is also great for souvenir tee shirts and hats (I bought a cool new Army sweatshirt). My only criticism of the museum is that they could offer more books in the gift shop.

When you take a vacation to D.C., I realize that there are a lot of sites competing for your time. But if you are a student of American military history, the National Museum of the United States Army needs to be on your itinerary. 

A Short History of the 173rd Airborne Brigade

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"Sky Soldiers"
(Original article written 10-15-12 by Jim Broumley)

The 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team (BCT) is a parachute infantry brigade of the United States Army that is home based in Vicenza, Italy. The "Sky Soldiers" are the United States European Command's conventional airborne strategic response force for Europe. As of June 2006, the 173rd Airborne Brigade was reorganized as part of the Army's modularization process. Since that time, subordinate units of the 173rd BCT consist of the 1/503rd Infantry, 2/503rd Infantry (Airborne), 1/91st Cavalry (Airborne), 4/319th Field Artillery, the 173rd Support Battalion (Airborne), and the 173rd Special Troops Battalion.

The Sky Soldiers can trace their lineage back to the forming of the 173rd Infantry, 87th Division in 1917. The Brigade went to France with the 87th Division but was not involved in any major combat action. The Brigade was demobilized at Camp Dix, New Jersey in January of 1919. Between wars, the 173rd went through a series of reorganizations and re-designations. By the start of World War II, brigades were eliminated from divisions. Therefore in February of 1942, the Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 173rd Infantry Brigade was assigned to the 87th Division as the 87th Reconnaissance Troop. The 87th Division was part of Patton's Third Army and the 87th saw extensive combat in Europe including the Battle of the Bulge and the crossing of the Rhine River. The future Sky Soldiers were deactivated again in 1945, at Fort Benning, Georgia. Additionally, two maneuver battalions of the Brigade trace their history to the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment which participated in the taking of Corregidor in the Philippines.

The 173rd ABN BDE earned several nicknames during their training for their noteworthy service during the Vietnam War. The 173rd Airborne Brigade (Separate) was activated into the regular army on the island of Okinawa on March 26, 1963. The Brigade was to serve as the quick reaction force for the Pacific Command. Since this unique and aggressive unit was to be ready to insert into Southeast Asian countries as a crisis revealed itself, the unit was known as the "Fire Brigade." Their first commander, Brigadier General Ellis W. Williamson established realistic training throughout the region. Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan) paratroopers gave the 173rd Airborne their nickname of Tien Bing or "Sky Soldiers" due to the number of training jumps conducted on their island.

Our thanks to John "Dutch" Holland, a Vietnam Veteran with Bravo Company, 1/503rd for his recollection of how the 173rd Airborne got the nickname of The Herd:

"The term Herd used with pride by veterans of the 173rd Airborne Brigade. This nickname was coined by Colonel 'Rawhide' Boland of the 1/503rd. Colonel Boland while on leave heard, liked and bought a copy of Frankie Laine's old song Rawhide from the TV series of the same name. The colonel on returning to camp played the song over the PA system during all battalion formations. We as paratroopers had to run to and from all these formations, and with the roads being unpaved kicked, up quit a cloud of dust. One of his staff remarked that we looked like a herd of cattle and you can guess the rest. Colonel Boland was given the name Rawhide and the battalion was referred to as the Herd. The rest of the brigade adopted the name once in Nam and no one is sure when or how that began. Colonel Boland is still alive and kickin' at 88 years of age and still signs his name as 'Rawhide Boland.'"

The 173rd Airborne Brigade was the first Army unit sent to the Republic of South Vietnam. In May of 1965, the majority of the Brigade landed at Bien Hoa Airfield. They found the area frequently battered by enemy raids and shelling attacks. The Sky Soldiers were the first to go into War Zone D to destroy enemy base camps and relieve pressure on the Vietnamese capital. The 173rd was the first to introduce the use of long-range reconnaissance patrols. The Brigade was assigned to II Field Force, Vietnam for their entire service. They fought in the Iron Triangle, a Viet Cong stronghold north of Saigon. In November of 1965, the 173rd took part in Operation Hump, north of Bien Hoa on the outskirts of Saigon. In 1966 they participated in Operation Crimp to root out enemy forces from the Tunnels at Cu Chi.

The 1st and 2nd Battalions, 503rd Infantry were the first Army combat units from the 173rd sent to the Republic of South Vietnam, accompanied by the 3rd Battalion, 319th Artillery. They were supported by the 173rd Support Battalion, 173rd Engineers, E Trp/17th Cavalry, and D Co/16th Armor. The First Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment and the 161st Field Battery of the Royal New Zealand Army were later attached to the Brigade during the first year.

In late August of 1966 the 4th Battalion, 503rd Infantry from Fort Campbell, Kentucky joined the 173rd Airborne Brigade in Vietnam. The 3/503rd joined the Brigade at Tuy Hoa in September of 1967. Also joining the Brigade was Company N, 75th Rangers. At its peak strength in Vietnam, the 173rd Airborne Brigade (Separate) had nearly 3,000 soldiers assigned.

On February 22, 1967, the 173rd Airborne Brigade took part in Operation Junction City, conducting the only combat parachute jump of the Vietnam War. During some of the toughest fighting of the war, the Sky Soldiers blocked North Vietnamese Army incursions at Dak To during the summer and fall of 1967. This period culminated in the capture of Hill 875. Elements of the brigade conducted an amphibious assault against NVA and VC forces as part of an operation to clear the rice-growing lowlands along the Bong Song littoral.

The Battle of Dak To took a heavy toll on the Brigade and hence they were transferred to the An Khe and Bong Son areas. They saw little action during 1968 while the Brigade was rebuilt. The unit stayed in An Khe until mid-1969. In May 1969 the Brigade conducted Operation Darby Punch II, which was the Sky Soldiers' fiftieth operation in country.

From April 1969 until its withdrawal from Vietnam in 1971, the 173rd Airborne Brigade served in Binh Dinh Province. They participated in four additional operations: Washington Greene, Greene Lightning, Greene Storm, and Green Sure. From April to August 1971 the Sky Soldiers redeployed back to Fort Campbell, Kentucky. The unit was deactivated on January 14, 1972.

The Vietnam Veterans of the 173rd Airborne Brigade are deservedly proud of their service with the Sky Soldiers. During just over six years of combat, the 173rd earned 14 campaign streamers and 4 unit citations. The Brigade soldiers were awarded 13 Medals of Honor, 46 Distinguished Service Crosses, 1736 Silver Stars, and over 6,000 Purple Hearts. Sadly, 1736 Sky Soldiers died in Vietnam.

The 173rd Airborne Brigade was reactivated on June 12, 2000, on Caserma Ederle in Vicenza, Italy as the European Command's only conventional airborne strategic response force. On March 26, 2003, the 173rd made the largest combat jump since World War II when the Sky Soldiers landed in the Bashur Drop Zone to open the northern front in support of the invasion of Iraq. The jump forced Iraqi defenses to commit forces to the area making it safer for swift progress to Baghdad by other U.S. forces. In March 2004 the Sky Soldiers returned from combat operations in Iraq.

After doing its part in Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 173rd Airborne Brigade began its second deployment in three years in the spring of 2005. This time the Sky Soldiers deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Global War on Terror. The Brigade returned to Italy in March 2006.

The 173rd Airborne Brigade was re-designated the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team (ABCT) on October 11, 2006. This was a significant change as the "Combat Team" designation signifies the ability of the Brigade to deploy its forces and sustain itself with its newly integrated support teams. While most of the Brigade remains in Vicenza, Italy, three battalions have been organized in Bamberg, Germany, and another in Schweinfurt, Germany until additional facilities are constructed in Vicenza.

In the spring of 2007, the 173rd ABCT again deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom as Task Force Bayonet. This was their first deployment as a fully transformed Brigade Combat Team. The 173rd Airborne BCT officially relieved the 3rd Brigade Combat Team of the 10th Mountain Division on June 6, 2007. They participated in various operations with the objective of ensuring security and subduing insurgents in the mountainous regions along Afghanistan's border with Pakistan near the Hindu Kush. During a 15-month deployment, the brigade ran over 9,000 patrols in the region. Author and journalist Sebastian Junger's book, "War," is about this deployment. Junger and photographer Tim Hetherington were embedded with Battle Company and after the deployment produced the documentary "Restrepo."

In July of 2008, about two weeks before the end of the deployment, about 200 Taliban insurgents attacked a position near the village of Wanat in Waygal district defended by the second platoon of Chosen Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne). At one point the Taliban, attacking the remote base from the nearby village and adjoining farmland, broke through the American's defensive lines. The paratroopers drove off the attackers with the assistance of artillery and air support. It is estimated that between 21 and 52 insurgents were killed and another 20 to 40 wounded. However, what became known as the Battle of Wanat resulted in the deaths of nine paratroopers killed in action and twenty-seven wounded. This was the largest number of American combat deaths in a single battle since the beginning of U.S. operations in Afghanistan in 2001.

The 173rd Airborne Brigade's deployment ended in July and all Sky Soldiers were back at home base by August 2008. Thirty-nine soldiers from the brigade were killed during the '07-'08 deployment. On June 14, 2009, the 173rd Airborne BCT was notified that they would again deploy to Afghanistan. The Sky Soldiers deployed to the provinces of Logar and Wardak, Afghanistan in November 2009. The 1st and 2nd Battalions, 503rd Infantry Regiment saw extensive action in the eastern part of the brigade's area of operations while the 1/91st Cavalry worked to transform western Logar province into a secure environment. The Sky Soldiers returned to Europe in November 2010.

The 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team deployed to Afghanistan once more in July 2012, replacing the 3rd IBCT, 1st Armored Division, Task Force Bulldog. The Sky Soldiers are operating yet again in Logar and Wardak provinces.

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A Summary History of the 25th Infantry Division

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"Tropic Lightning"
(Original article written 5/9/08 by Jim Broumley)

The U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Division, nicknamed "Tropic Lightning," is headquartered at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, and is assigned to the Pacific Command. The Division of nearly 17,000 soldiers stationed in Hawaii, at Fort Wainwright and Fort Richardson, Alaska, focuses primarily on training for low-intensity conflicts throughout the Pacific region. However, the 25th ID is fully involved in the Global War on Terror and deploys units in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq. The Tropical Lightning Division underwent the Army's modular re-organization in 2006. The 25th Infantry Division now has four Brigade Combat Teams (BCT) and an Aviation Brigade. The 1st and 2nd BCTs have fielded the Stryker combat vehicle, and the 4th BCT is Airborne qualified.

The division's shoulder patch, a lightning bolt superimposed on a taro leaf, was formally adopted in 1943. The colors of gold and red were those of the late Hawaiian monarchy. While soldiers over the years have jokingly nicknamed the patch the "Electric Chili Pepper" or the "Electric Strawberry," in 1953, the nickname "Tropic Lightning" was officially adopted.

In 1921, the United States Army formed the Hawaiian Division to protect the islands and our growing interests in the Pacific region. On October 1, 1941, the Hawaiian Division was split to create the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions. The 25th Infantry Division was stationed at Schofield Barracks, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. The Division was just over two months old when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and thrust the United States into World War Two. After the attack, the Division moved into beach defensive positions, preparing to defend Honolulu from invasion.

The division continued in its role as protector of Oahu until November 1942, when they were ordered into action against the Japanese in the Solomon Islands. On November 25th the Division moved to Guadalcanal. The 25th Infantry Division took part in some of the most bitter fighting in the Pacific Theater. By February 5, 1943, organized enemy resistance had ended on Guadalcanal. A period of garrison duty followed until July. Due to their superior performance during the operation, the 25th Infantry Division earned its nickname: "Tropic Lightning."

Beginning July 21st the Tropic Lightning participated in the seizure of the islands of New Georgia, Vella LaVella, Sasavele, and Kolombangara. The Solomons Campaign ended in August of 1943. The Division was sent to New Zealand for rest and training, with the last elements arriving on December 5th. The soldiers of the 25th Infantry Division then moved to New Caledonia on 8 February 1944 to prepare for the invasion of the Philippines.

On January 11, 1945, the 25th Infantry Division landed on Luzon, entering the fight for the liberation of the Philippine Islands. The Division met stiff resistance from the Japanese as it drove across the central plain of Luzon. Beginning on February 21, 1945, the Tropic Lightning attacked Japanese forces in the Caraballo Mountains in order to secure the left flank of the Sixth Army as it drove for Manila. The 25th Infantry Division fought its way from hill to hill until the key Balete Pass fell to the Division on May 13, 1945. The Tropic Lightning Division was relieved on June 30, 1945. The 25th Infantry Division had suffered the most casualties of any division of the Sixth Army in its amazing 165 days of continuous combat. The 25th Infantry Division participated in four campaigns of the Pacific Theater: Central Pacific, Guadalcanal, Northern Solomons, and Luzon. Six Tropic Lightning soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor.

The Division was in Tarlac on the island of Luzon in the Philippines when the Japanese surrendered. On September 20, 1945, the Tropic Lightning began moving to Japan to act as occupation forces. The 25th Infantry Division remained on occupation duty for the next five years until called upon again to serve their country. This time the fight would be on the Korean Peninsula.

The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when the North Korean People's Army crossed the 38th Parallel in an unprovoked attack on the Republic of South Korea. Under United Nations orders, the 25th Infantry Division was deployed to Korea from 5-18 July 1950. Upon arrival, they successfully completed their first mission of blocking the approaches to the port city of Pusan. After weeks of bitter fighting, the division was able to break out from the Pusan area in September 1950 along with U.S. and United Nations forces to link with U.S. Marines who landed at the city of Inchon. Most of Korea was liberated and North Korean forces were driven to the Yalu River, when Chinese forces joined the fight in November 1950. The 25th Infantry Division and allied forces were driven south once again. A permanent battle line was established south of Osan. The division began retaking lost territory in January 1951. By February 10, 1951, the city of Inchon and Kimpo Air Base were recaptured. The Division next participated in Operation Ripper, which drove the enemy north of the Han River. The spring of 1951 continued with successful Operations Dauntless, Detonate, and Piledriver. These offensive operations enhanced the United Nations' position in negotiating an end to the fighting. Peace talks began in the summer of 1951. Unfortunately, the Chinese and North Koreans were not ready to settle. A stalemated, trench warfare situation continued with patrolling and defensive actions for the next two years. On occasion, fierce battles were fought as enemy forces tried to break the main line of resistance. From May to July of 1953, a heavy Chinese assault was thrown at the Tropic Lightning's section of the line that guarded the approaches to Seoul. The 25th Infantry Division repulsed this attack and protected the South Korean capital. The 25th was placed in reserve status in July. The Korean War ended on July 27, 1953, when an armistice took effect.

The 25th Infantry Division had spent 37 months in combat during the Korean War. The Division received two South Korean Presidential Unit Citations and was credited with participation in all ten Korean War campaigns. Fourteen Tropic Lightning soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor. By October 1954, the division had returned home to Hawaii after a 12-year absence.

In response to a request from the U.S. Military Assistance Command in Vietnam, the Division sent 100 helicopter door-gunners to the Republic of South Vietnam in early 1963. By August 1965, further Division involvement in the coming Vietnam Conflict included the deployment of Company C, 65th Engineer Battalion, to South Vietnam to assist in the construction of port facilities at Cam Ranh Bay.

In December 1965, the Tropic Lightning Division deployed to South Vietnam in force. In a massive airlift, the 3rd Brigade deployed to the central highlands at Pleiku, while the rest of the division was transported by sea. Operation Blue Light was the largest and longest airlift of personnel and cargo into a combat zone in military history before Operation Desert Shield. The Command Group of the division had established their base in Cu Chi district, 20 miles northwest of the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon. By April 1966, the entire division had arrived in country and was ready to strike the enemy.

During the period from the summer of 1966 to the spring of 1967, the 25th Division was the largest division in Vietnam with four brigades under its command, the division's 1st and 2nd Brigades as well as the 3rd Brigade, 4th Division and the 196th Light Infantry Brigade. During 1966 and 1967 the division engaged in operations to destroy communist forces within their Area of Responsibility while engaging in humanitarian missions to support the Vietnamese people. In the fall of 1966, the division took part in Operation Attleboro, which was the largest unit operation of the war at that time. The fierce fighting during this operation resulted in the defeat of the 9th Viet Cong Division. The lessons learned were successfully applied by the Tropic Lightning in Operations Cedar Falls and Junction City conducted in War Zone C in early 1967.

From 1966 to 1970, the Division fought the North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong north and west of Saigon. In late January 1968, enemy forces began a major offensive during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year. During the 1968 Tet Offensive, the 25th Infantry Division stopped the Viet Cong attempts to seize Tan Son Nhut airfield and participated in the defense of Saigon.

The Vietnamization of the war, the turning over of fighting roles to South Vietnamese forces, and the withdrawals of U.S. forces began in 1969. In April 1970 the division took part in operation Bold Lancer, which took the Vietnam War into neighboring Cambodia to destroy enemy sanctuaries previously immune from attack. In this operation, the division confiscated thousands of tons of supplies and hundreds of weapons. This incursion crippled the Cambodian-based efforts against American units and allowed the South Vietnamese time to prepare to take over the war.

By late December 1970, elements of the 25th Infantry Division were able to begin redeployment to Schofield Barracks. The 2nd Brigade was the last element of the Tropic Lightning Division to depart Vietnam. It arrived at Schofield Barracks in the early days of May 1971. The 25th Infantry Division served for 1,716 days in Vietnam, receiving participation credit for twelve Vietnam campaigns and being twice awarded the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry with Palm. Eight Tropic Lightning units were awarded Presidential Unit Citations and eleven received Valorous Unit Awards. Twenty-one Tropic Lightning soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor.

The face of the 25th Infantry Division changed in 1985 when it was selected to change into a light infantry formation. By 1 October 1986, the division had lost its heavy equipment and gained the designation of 25th Infantry Division (Light). The four primary characteristics of this new light infantry division were: mission flexibility, rapid deployment, and combat readiness at 100 percent strength with a Pacific Basin orientation.

The 25th Infantry Division would see its first major deployment as a Light Infantry Division in January 1995 when the 2nd and 3rd Brigades were sent to Haiti as part of Operation Uphold Democracy. The division became a critical element in the stabilization and reconstitution of Haiti, providing security and rebuilding the infrastructure. The division's mission was officially completed in March 1995; however, the final contingent of Tropic Lightning soldiers stayed until June. From April to September 2002, the 25th Infantry Division (Light) continued its peacekeeping mission into the 21st Century as 1,000 Tropic Lightning soldiers took part in operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina. As part of Stabilization Force XI, division troops took part in mine-clearing operations, reconstruction, and the destruction of weapons turned in by civilians.

The 25th Infantry Division did not participate as a whole in Operation Desert Storm due to the division being earmarked for Pacific contingencies. However, during the Gulf War, one platoon each from Companies A, B, and C, 4th Battalion, 27th Infantry, "Wolfhounds" deployed to Saudi Arabia in January 1991. These Tropic Lightning soldiers were scheduled to be replacement squads in the ground campaign; however, after observing their thoroughly outstanding performance in desert warfare training, the Assistant Commander of the Third U.S. Army asked for them to become the security force for the Army's Forward Headquarters. In that role, the Wolfhound platoons were alerted and attacked with Third Army (Forward) into Kuwait City on February 26. Company A's platoon was separated from the other Wolfhounds following that battle to accompany General H. Norman Schwarzkopf into Iraq on March 1, 1991, and provided security at the truce signing. The three platoons returned to Schofield Barracks without casualties on March 20, 1991.

The Army's evaluation of Desert Storm recognized the need for a rapidly deployable organization that could fill the operational gap between initially deployed light forces, which lack staying power, and the slower deploying heavy armored forces. Originally known as the Interim Brigade Combat Team it is now known as the Stryker Brigade Combat Team. It is an infantry brigade mounted on some three hundred Stryker, 19-ton wheeled armored vehicles in ten different configurations with significant upgrades in firepower and capable of being transported in C-130 aircraft.

The transformation began in 1999 with the conversion of the 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division at Fort Lewis to a Stryker Brigade. In the spring of 2002 the 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division began to reorganize from a light infantry brigade to the Stryker configuration. The conversion of the 2nd Brigade to a Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT) began in 2005. By late 2007 the brigade had received its full complement of Stryker vehicles and became combat certified.

In July 2005, a 4th Brigade was added to the 25th Infantry Division as an airborne brigade stationed in Fort Richardson, Alaska. It deployed in October 2006 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In January 2006 the 25th Infantry Division (light) was redesignated as the 25th Infantry Division. The "light" segment of the name was dropped to reflect the changes the force underwent during the Stryker and modular force transformations.

The 25th Infantry Division was called on to support of the Global War on Terrorism in Iraq and Afghanistan in July 2003 to prepare for deployment in 2004. This deployment would mark the first time the division deployed as a whole outside the Pacific region.

The 2nd Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq in January 2004. The brigade was stationed outside the city of Kirkuk where they engaged in peacekeeping operations and nation-building projects. The "Warrior" Brigade fought and destroyed insurgent forces in various cities and towns including Najaf, Huwijah, Samarra, and Kirkuk. The high point of the 2nd Brigade deployment was their support of the first free elections held in Iraq in over 50 years. After over a year away from home, the 2nd BCT had returned to Schofield Barracks by March 2005.

Tropic Lightning deployed an impressive force to assist in the stabilization of Afghanistan. The 3rd Brigade Combat Team, Division Artillery, and units of the Division's Aviation Brigade deployed in March 2004. Soldiers of the "Bronco" brigade, "Tropic Thunder", and "Wings of Lightning" engaged in combat operations against Al-Qaida and remnants of the former Taliban regime while helping to rebuild a country ravaged by decades of war. During operations Lightning Resolve and Lightning Freedom, Tropic Lightning units supported the first-ever democratic elections in Afghanistan. All units of Tropic Lightning deployed to Afghanistan returned home to Hawaii by June 2005.

In September 2005, the 25th Infantry Division was ordered to deploy in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 06-08. The Division Headquarters, with the 3rd IBCT, and 25th CAB deployed to Multinational Division-North in Iraq for a 15-month tour. During the months of July and August, the Division moved its personnel and equipment through Kuwait into Iraq. The Mission Assumption Day ceremony was held on September 13, 2006. The Division was already deep into the war as Task Force Lightning. Task Force Lightning included units from the 1st Cavalry Division, 2nd and 4th Infantry Divisions, the 82nd Airborne Division, 25th CAB, 3rd IBCT, National Guard and Reserve units, with a strength of 23,000 Soldiers. The size of Task Force Lightning's Area of Operations was roughly the size of Pennsylvania and included over 10 million people spread through six provinces.

The efforts of Task Force Lightning during Operation Iraqi Freedom VI brought incredible results: a dramatic reduction in attacks, tribal groups working with the government, better trained and capable Iraqi Security Forces, and a once emboldened enemy beaten back. The Division returned to Hawaii in October 2007.

The high standards set by the 25th Infantry Division in its conduct of combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq effectively demonstrates the division motto "Ready to Strike, Anytime Anywhere" and such traditional high standards set by the Tropic Lightning in four wars will continue in its current and future deployments in the Global War On Terror.

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A Summary History of the XVIII (18th) Airborne Corps

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XVIII Airborne Corps "Sky Dragons"
(Original article written 6/26/08 by Jim Broumley)

The XVIII Airborne Corps is the corps size element of the United States Army designed for rapid deployment anywhere in the world. Referred to as "America's Contingency Corps," it is the largest warfighting organization in the U.S. Army. It is headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and controls approximately 88,000 soldiers.

Currently assigned to the Eighteenth Corps are the 3rd Infantry Division, 10th Mountain, 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery, the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, the 108th Air Defense Artillery, the 18th Aviation Brigade, the 229th Aviation Regiment, the 20th Engineer Brigade, the 525 Military Intelligence Brigade, the 16th Military Police Brigade, the 35th Signal Brigade, the 1st Corps Support Command, the 44th Medical Brigade, the 18th Finance Group, the 18th Personnel Group, and the Dragon Brigade.

The XVIII Airborne Corps was originally activated as the II Armored Corps on January 17, 1942. When the armored corps concept proved unnecessary, the unit was re-designated as the XVIII Corps at the Presidio of Monterey, California on October 9, 1943. The current XVIII Airborne Corps celebrates its birthday on August 25, 1944, when the blue airborne tab was added. On that day in Orbourne, St. George, England, the XVIII Airborne Corps assumed command of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. Within a month the Corps sent their divisions on a combat jump in the Netherlands for Operation Market Garden.

After the Battle of the Bulge, all airborne units in the U.S. Army were placed under the command of the XVIII Airborne Corps. The Corps planned and executed Operation Varsity, the crossing of the Rhine River into Germany, which included the 17th Airborne Division and the British 6th Airborne Division. The Sky Dragons were returned to the United States in June of 1945 and deactivated at Camp Campbell, Kentucky on October 15, 1945.

The XVIII Airborne Corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg, North Carolina on May 21, 1951, as part of the army buildup for Korea and the Cold War. Ever since, the XVIII Airborne Corps has been the primary strategic response force for the United States. The Corps and its various subordinate units have participated in over a dozen major operations in both combat and humanitarian roles.

During Operation Power Pack the Corps deployed to the Dominican Republic on April 30, 1965. The Sky Dragons served as the headquarters for U.S. forces sent to restore law and order, prevent a communist takeover of the country, and protect American lives. For Operation Urgent Fury, which began on October 25, 1983, the XVIII Airborne Corps invaded the island nation of Grenada. The Corps provided the bulk of land forces sent to rescue medical students and other stranded Americans. In this operation, the Corps participated with our Caribbean allies in an international peacekeeping effort.

During Operation Just Cause, the invasion of Panama on December 20, 1989, the XVIII Airborne Corps was placed in operational command of Joint Task Force South. The Operation simultaneously struck twenty-seven targets and conducted town night parachute assaults to seize critical terrain. Operation Just Cause set the stage for a freely elected government to be established in the country.

Operation Desert Shield began on August 9, 1990. The XVIII Airborne Corps rapidly deployed to Saudi Arabia as the first ground force in theater to spearhead efforts to deter aggression and assist in the defense of friendly nations. This was the largest deployment of American troops since WWII. The Persian Gulf War started with Operation Desert Storm in February of 1991. The Sky Dragons were responsible for covering VII Corps' northern flank. The XVIII Airborne Corp launched the first ground assault into Iraq with the 82nd Airborne Division and the attached French 6th Light Armored Division. The largest, and farthest, air assault in history was conducted by the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault). A mounted attack was also made by the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized) and the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment. In less than 100 hours the XVIII Airborne Corps had effectively sealed off the occupying Iraqi Army and destroyed major elements of the elite Republican Guard.

During the 1990s the XVIII Airborne Corps deployed countless Corps soldiers to more than twenty-seven countries that include Bosnia, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Haiti. They have also directed countless Joint Exercises that involve all of the services.

The XVIII Airborne Corps' most recent deployments have been in support of America's Global War on Terrorism, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. From January 2005 through January 2006, the Corps was deployed to Baghdad, where it served as the Multi-National-Corps-Iraq. The Sky Dragons deployed again to Iraq in November of 2007.

The XVIII Airborne Corps is superbly trained in tactical, operational, and strategic levels of war. They are capable of exercising the nation's ability to conduct strategic forced entry operations anywhere in the world on 18 hours' notice. Those soldiers and veterans who have worn the Sky Dragon shoulder patch are a proud group of men and women who truly served their country on the cutting edge.

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The Brazilian Expeditionary Force During WWII

Brazil’s Contribution to the Allies in World War II

I read an article recently in Military History Magazine about the Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II. Realizing that I am rather “America-centric” in my reading, this opened my eyes to the contribution of Allied nations other than “The Big Three” Allied countries of the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the United States.

Brazilian troops, newly arrived at Naples, Italy from

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. July 16, 1944. National Archives

Since the war began in 1939, the United States made ever-increasing overtures to Latin American nations to ally themselves with the countries fighting fascism. However, Brazil would become the only South American country to send troops into combat. Of course, this alignment was in Brazil’s best interest. The Atlantic is at its narrowest point between the coasts of Brazil and Africa. Brazil’s government knew that the United States would require air and naval bases for a safer and shorter route to get troops and supplies to Europe. A military alliance would also turn into a trading partnership that would give Brazil an advantage over its South American neighbors.

Initially, Brazil tried to maintain a neutral status. But after contracting for American bases to be built in Brazil, they severed diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy on January 28, 1942. As a result Axis submarines began to target Brazilian merchant shipping. U-boats sunk 13 Brazilian merchant ships by July, killing 600. Brazil declared war on Germany and Italy on August 22, 1942.

The Brazilian Navy participated in the Battle of the Atlantic, escorting a total of 614 convoys. They sank a total of twelve submarines (11 German and 1 Italian) along their coast. Brazil lost a total of 36 ships, including merchant vessels, and losing approximately 1600 crewmen, both navy and civilian.

Shoulder sleeve insignia of 1st EID

By Government of Brazil - Wikipedia

Once war was declared, Brazil began to organize an expeditionary force to send to the European Theater. The country was woefully unprepared for war and the United States contributed to their training. However, political disagreements over the size, use, and command of the force delayed their deployment for two years. The first troops of the Brazilian 1st Expeditionary Infantry Division (1st EID) departed for Italy in July 1944. Before the end of the war, over 25,000 Brazilian soldiers would serve in Italy.

The 1st EID was assigned to the US IV Corps of General Mark Clark’s US Fifth Army. They fought alongside African American soldiers of the 92nd Infantry Division and Japanese Americans of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Although under American command, one could argue that the Fifth Army was a multi-national force. British units consisted of commonwealth and colonial forces from New Zealand, Canada, India, Nepal, Palestine, South Africa, Rhodesia, and various African colonies. Free French forces were comprised of Senegalese, Moroccans, and Algerians. Soldiers from occupied countries such as Poland, Greece, and Czechoslovakia were also part of the Fifth Army, as well as anti-fascist Italians.

The 1st EID wore a shoulder patch that has a caricature of a snake smoking a pipe. It was inspired by a saying in Brazil during their training that, translated from Portuguese meant “it’s more likely that a snake will smoke a pipe before the Brazilian Expeditionary Force would go to the front and fight.” The soldiers embraced this put down and came up with the motto “The snake will smoke.” The patch is the result of that and it gave them their nickname: “The Smoking Snakes.”

The 1st EID fought as part of the Fifth Army in northern Italy until the end of the war in May 1945. During their time in combat, the Brazilians took over 20,500 prisoners. They lost 948 men killed in action. For a rundown of their combat operations, read the article “The Boys from Brazil” by Jerome A. Long in the Winter 2023 issue of Military History magazine.

2nd Lt. Jorge E.P. Taborda, from Rio de Janeiro, a pilot

with the First Brazilian Fighter Squadron serving in Italy.

National Archives Photo. 

The Brazilian Air Force also made a significant contribution to the war effort. The 1st Squadron of the Brazilian 1st Fighter Aviation Group trained at US bases in Panama and was designated operational in May 1944. They participated in the defense of the Canal Zone until they deployed to Italy in September 1944. They flew the P-47 Thunderbolt, attached as a squadron of the US Air Force 350th Fighter Group. Most of their missions were supporting ground units. Unlike the ground element of the BEF, the aviators were not going to get any replacement pilots. Out of the 48 operational pilots that deployed with the squadron, 22 were lost: five were killed by anti-aircraft fire, eight others were shot down over enemy territory, six were medically grounded and three more were killed in accidents. In their cumulative 5,465 combat flight hours, the 1st Fighter Squadron amassed an impressive record of damage to the enemy.

Of course we are drawn to the history of our own country. But I think the takeaway here is that we need to acknowledge that the Second World War was definitely a world war. By my count, there were 21 combatant nations joining the Americans, the British, and the Soviets on the Allied side of the war. Not to mention the four former Axis nations that swapped sides and joined the Allies later in the war (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, and Finland.) Who knows? Maybe knowing the contribution of a WWII ally will change how we view our foreign relations today.

A Short History of Army Aviation

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U.S. Army Aviation
(Original Article Written 12/12/12 by Jim Broumley)

Army Aviation became a separate branch on April 12, 1983, but soldiers had been taking to the air since the days of the observation balloon. Aviation is one of the combat arms branches today, but in the beginning, flying was just a method of observation and scouting. During the American Civil War, both the North and the South used balloons to direct artillery fire and observe enemy dispositions. This marked the beginning of aerial support for ground forces. The United States also used balloons during the Spanish American War and WWI. However, soon after the first powered flight the airplane quickly replaced balloons for all military purposes.

The Wright brothers flew the first heavier-than-air, engine-powered, full-size airplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. Within a few years, the leadership of the Army began to run tests of the new invention to see if it had any military benefits. During one of these tests, Lt. Thomas Selfridge became the first U.S. soldier killed in an airplane crash. He had been flying with Orville Wright on September 17, 1908, when the mishap occurred. The following year, the Army accepted delivery of "U.S. Army Aeroplane No. 1," built to specification by the Wright brothers, on August 2, 1909. The subsequent October 26 saw the designation of the first two Army aviators, Lieutenants Frederic E. Humphreys and Frank P. Lahm, when each completed their first solo flight.

Early Army Aviation, circa 1918.
Photo from Library of Congress

With the approval of Congress, an Aviation Section was created under the U.S. Army Signal Corps on July 18, 1914. The Punitive Expedition to Mexico saw the first tactical usage of Army airplanes when General John J. "Blackjack" Pershing used them for scouting while the expedition chased Pancho Villa's forces in northern Mexico. Nevertheless, the Army only had a few dozen aircraft in the inventory when the First World War began. During WWI, the number of Army aircraft grew to more than 11,000 planes with more than 190,000 aviation personnel in the Army Air Service, created in May 1918.

After WWI, the leadership of the Army Air Service, particularly General William "Billy" Mitchell, argued forcefully for the creation of an independent air force, separate from the ground forces of the Army. That argument was rejected at the time, but it was evident that aviation needed to be considered a combat arm unto itself. Again with the required action of Congress, the Army Air Service was changed to the Army Air Corps on July 1, 1926, with a newly designated "Secretary of War for Air" to manage it. This action put the Air Corps in equal status with the infantry, cavalry, and artillery.

During the 1930s the top leadership of the Army Air Corps was focusing on the potential for air power to be employed as a strategic asset (in other words, bombing major targets rather than supporting ground units). This concerned ground forces commanders, particularly in the artillery branch that benefited from using light observation aircraft for adjustment of indirect fire. The Army experimented with organic light aircraft in artillery units during maneuvers in 1940 and 1941. The tests of these "Grasshoppers," as the light planes were called, were very successful. Their performance was better than the larger Air Corps planes that had been used previously.

In the meantime, the advance of technology marched on. In January 1938 the War Department disbursed $2 million for research into the possibility of developing rotary-wing aircraft. The Army acquired its first real helicopter on November 1, 1941, a Sikorsky YR-4.

On June 6, 1942, the Air Corps was elevated to the Army Air Forces (AAF), which put that component of the Army on the same level as the Army Ground Forces. The Field Artillery branch was allowed to keep "organic army aviation" under its control. This meant that light observation aircraft like the L-4 Grasshopper and the L-5 Sentinel and their personnel were organic to the artillery battalions and brigades that they worked for. The Department of Air Training was established at the Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. This date, June 6, 1942, is recognized as the birth date of Army Aviation.

Organic Army Aviation first participated in combat during Operation Torch in November 1942 in North Africa. While the original function of organic Army Aviation was to adjust artillery, during the course of the war, it expanded. During World War II, L-4 Grasshoppers and a few larger L-5 Sentinels were used to adjust artillery fire, gather intelligence, support naval gunfire, conduct medical evacuations (MEDEVAC), and perform other functions like command and control. The expanding mission and close coordination with ground forces were primarily because the aircraft were available to, and often under the command of, the commander on the ground where the assets of the Army Air Forces were not.

The difference in need, mission, priorities, and philosophy as to the employment of aviation assets caused a great deal of friction between the leaders of the Army Air Forces and Army Ground Forces. It was time to separate the two. The United States Air Force (USAF) became its own branch of service, separate from the United States Army, on September 18, 1947. There continued to be a great deal of friction between the services with suspicion of overlapping areas of responsibility and competition for precious funding. On April 21, 1948, President Eisenhower signed the "Key West Agreement" that provided for the division of assets between the Armed Services. Under the agreement, the Air Force would have control of all strategic air assets as well as most tactical aviation and logistic functions. The Army was allowed to retain aviation assets to be used for reconnaissance and medical evacuation purposes. The Navy could have its own combat air arm to support naval operations, which included combat aircraft to support the Marine Corps. After the adoption of the Key West Agreement, the Army continued to develop its light planes and rotary-wing aircraft to support its ground operations. In 1949 the Army established the Warrant Officer Pilot Program to fly new cargo helicopters it was fielding.

The Korean War saw a leap forward in Army Aviation. On January 3, 1951, the first combat medical evacuation by helicopter was conducted - in Korea by 1LT Willis G. Strawn and 1LT Joseph L. Bowler. The H-13 Sioux rotary wing aircraft had been fielded since 1947 and was used for MEDEVAC and command and control operations. The helicopter proved its worth in the rugged terrain of Korea. This recognition of the capabilities of rotary-wing aircraft increased the demand for machines and pilots. In 1951 the Army began organizing helicopter transport companies and the fielding of H-19 Chickasaw, albeit in limited numbers due to the competition for the aircraft from the Air Force.

Forward-thinking leaders in the Army saw the potential of rotary wing aviation. General James Gavin published an article in April of 1954 titled "Cavalry, and I Don't Mean Horses." In this influential article, Gavin called for the use of helicopters in cavalry operations that would provide the mobility that the Army lacked in Korea due to the terrain. This was an indicator of a doctrinal push that rapidly expanded Army Aviation into the combat arm it is today. On November 1, 1954, the Army Aviation School was moved from Fort Sill to Fort Rucker, Alabama. The United States Army Aviation Center (USAAVNC) was established there in March 1955.

Under this new doctrine of "air cavalry," the Army saw the need to mount weapons on helicopters to serve as a kind of "aerial artillery." The French Army had seen some success mounting rocket launchers and 20-mm cannons on helicopters during the Algerian War of 1954-1962. Based on this example, the Army began running tests on armament systems for rotary-wing aircraft in 1956. Primarily, Colonel Jay D. Vanderpool directed these combat development experiments. Vanderpool also wrote the first doctrinal manuals. This research and development was conducted while the Air Force still theoretically had exclusive responsibility for aerial fire support. Nevertheless, Army commanders felt that the Air Force was not doing enough to prepare to support ground forces and under the Key West Agreement were not allowed to arm their fixed-wing aircraft. Therefore, it would seem that competition between the services actually led to the development of armament systems for Army helicopters.

A UH-1 "Huey" delivers a "mule" to the field in
Vietnam. Photo from NARA.

An armed helicopter company was activated in Okinawa in 1962 and later deployed to Thailand and then Vietnam. In Vietnam, the new helicopter company flew escort for lift helicopters. There were no mission restrictions on the army aircraft enforced by the Department of Defense, thereby giving implied permission to deploy armed rotary wing aircraft. Also in 1962, the Tactical Mobility Requirements Board was formed. Commonly known as "The Howze Board," this group had been established to develop and test the concept of air mobility. After test exercises, war games, and concentrated study and analysis, the Howze Board recommended that the Army commit itself to organic air mobility through the extensive use of helicopters. The 11th Air Assault Division (Test) put the Board's recommendations into testing from 1963 to 1965. Beginning with their deployment to Vietnam in 1965, the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) repeatedly demonstrated the validity of the airmobile concept in combat. On April 6, 1966, the Johnson-McConnell agreement was signed between the Army and the Air Force. The Army gave up its fixed-wing tactical airlift aircraft (primarily the DHC-4 Caribou) in exchange for the Air Force relinquishing its claim to most forms of rotary-wing aircraft.

Vietnam was truly America's "Helicopter War." The United States' involvement in Vietnam began with Army Aviation operating a fleet of reciprocating engine aircraft. In the early days of the development of air mobility, the UH-1 Iroquois, or Huey was introduced, a modern turbine-powered aircraft with both troop carrier and gunship versions developed specifically with deployment to southeast Asia in mind. Before the end of the Vietnam War, more than 5,000 of these truly versatile aircraft were sent overseas. Also during Vietnam, the OH-6 Cayuse (the "Loach") and the OH-58 Kiowa were fielded as scout aircraft, replacing the OH-13. In 1967, the AH-1G Cobra came online to begin replacing the Huey gunships as an attack aircraft. The U.S. Army's heavy lift helicopter in Vietnam (and ever since) was the tandem rotor Boeing CH-47 Chinook, introduced in 1962. The OV-1 Mohawk and U-21 Ute (Beechcraft King Air) were part of the small fixed-wing aircraft inventory flown by the Army.

After United States combat forces left Vietnam, Army Aviation continued to develop and pass major milestones. On June 4, 1974, Fort Rucker graduated the first female Army aviator, 2LT Sally D. Woolfolk (Murphy) from Rotary Wing Flight School. NASA chose Major Robert L. Stewart to be the first Army aviator to become an astronaut in January 1978. The aircraft inventory began to enter the modern era with the delivery of the first UH-60 Blackhawk to Fort Rucker on April 1, 1979. In recognition of the demonstrated increasing importance of aviation in Army doctrine and operations, Aviation became the fifteenth basic branch of the Army on April 12, 1983. Since then, commissioned officer pilots would be branched aviation, fully dedicated to learning its operations and tactics, rather than being temporarily detailed from another branch. The Army began to field the AH-64 Apache in 1984. On May 16, 1990, the 160th Aviation Battalion was reorganized and designated the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne). The unit was assigned to the U.S. Army Special Operations Command and signaled the arrival of dedicated aviation assets to special operations.

Since Vietnam and during operations in Grenada, Panama, and the Persian Gulf Army Aviation has played a major role in combat and support operations. An Army aviator fired the first shot of Operation Desert Storm from an Army helicopter. Within a few minutes, two teams of Apaches destroyed two Iraqi radar stations on January 17, 1991. During the next 100 hours of ground combat, Army aviation dominated night operations. The Army can be justly proud of the performance of its aviation assets and personnel during Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq, and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.

AH-64 Apache attack helicopter. Photo from NARA.

In April 1993, attack pilot positions were opened to female aviators. Another milestone was reached when Lieutenant Colonel Nancy J. Currie (formerly Nancy Sherlock), the first female Army aviator to become an astronaut, made her first space flight on June 23, 1993. By 1998 the AH-64D Longbow was arriving at Fort Hood, Texas. In December 2006 the Army accepted its first UH-72A Lakota, a twin-engine light utility helicopter long overdue in the inventory.

The mission of Army Aviation is to find, fix, and destroy the enemy through fire and maneuver; and to provide combat, combat support (CS), and combat service support (CSS) in coordinated operations as an integral member of the combined arms team. Army Aviation has the organic flexibility, versatility, and assets to fulfill a variety of maneuver, CS, and CSS roles and functions. These cover the spectrum of combined arms operations. Aviation can accomplish each of these roles during offensive or defensive operations and also for joint, combined, contingency, or special operations. Since its inception over one hundred years ago, Army Aviation has continued to modernize. With the integration of the AH-64D Longbow, MH-47E, MH-60K, and the UH-72A Lakota, Army Aviation stands on the threshold of a new century more mission capable than ever.

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